CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  II. 


Chapter        I. — Domestic  Sanitary  Appliances. 
"  II. — Domestic  Water  Supply. 

III. — External   and    Internal    Sanitary  Arrangements  for 

Suburban  and  Country  Houses. 
IV. — The    Sewage    Question    for   Villages   and    Isolated 

Country  Houses. 

V. — The  Plumbing,  Water  Supply  and  Sewerage  of  Hos- 
pitals. 
4  VI.— Theatre  Sanitation. 

VII. — The  Sanitary  Features  of  Markets  and  Abattoirs. 
VIII. — Kitchen,  Laundry  and  Drying  Room  Arrangements. 
IX. — School  Sanitation. 
X. — Bathing  and  Different  Forms  of  Baths. 
XI. — The  Modern  Rain  Bath  and  Spray  Baths  for  Insane 

Patients. 
XII. — Sanitary  House  Inspection. 


SANITARY  ENGINEERING 

OF 

BUILDINGS. 


SANITARY   ENGINEERING 


OF    BUILDINGS. 


BY 


WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  C.  E., 
CONSULTING    ENGINEER  FOR  SANITARY  WORKS. 

Mem.  Am.  Public  Health  Association, 
Cor.  Mem.  Am.  Institute  cf  Architects,  etc. 


VOL  I. 

With  103  Illustrations  and  6  Plates 


New  York  : 

WILLIAM  T.  COMSTOCK, 

23  Warren  Street. 

1899. 


4 


COPYRIGHT, 
WM.  PAUL  GERHARD. 

1899. 


PREFACE. 


WHEN    the    third   edition    of   the  book,    "Hints  on  the  Drainage  and 
Sewerage  of  Dwellings  "    was  sold  out,    the  publisher  requested  the 
author  to  rewrite  the  book  and  to  bring  the  same  up  to  date.     The 
revision,  as  completed,  forms  the  first  five  chapters  of  this  book.     Much  out-of-date 
matter  has  been  eliminated,  new  matter  added,  and  in  nearly  all  cases,  new  illus- 
trations have  been  prepared  by  the  author. 

A  part  of  the  contents  of  chapters  VI.  to  XII.  has  been  published  heretofore  in 
articles  contributed  to  some  of  the  technical  journals,  but  this  matter,  too,  has  been 
revised  and  wherever  necessary  enlarged,  and  additional  illustrations  have  been  in- 
serted, thus  rendering  the  whole  of  more  permanent  value  to  the  professions  and 
trades  interested  in  the  subject. 

Each  of  the  chapters  forms  a  separate  essay  independent  of  the  others,  and 
owing  to  this  fact  some  of  the  subjects  are  discussed  in  several  places,  though  each 
time  in  a  different  manner. 

A  second  volume  of  this  work,  which  is  now  in  actual  preparation,  will  con 
tain  chapters  on  "  Domestic  Appliances,"  on  "  Domestic  Water  Supply,"  "  Sani- 
tary Arrangements  for  Suburban  and  Country  Houses,"  "Water  Supply,  Drain- 
age and  Plumbing  of  Hospital  Buildings,"  on  "Theatre  Sanitation,"  "School 
Sanitation,"  "  Kitchen  and  Laundry  Arrangements,"  " Sanitary  Features  of  Market 
Houses  and  Abattoirs,"  "'Baths  and  Bathing,"  "The  Modern  Rain  Batn,"  and  on 
"Sanitary  House  Inspection."  Each  of  the  volumes  will  be  complete  in  itself, 
and  both  together  are  intended  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  the  numerous  questions 
arising  in  the  sanitary  engineering  of  buildings. 

The  Author. 

36  Union  Square,  New   York^  January    j1/,  jSfy). 


45G292 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Defective  Plumbing  and  Sewer  Gas. 

PAGB. 

House  sanitation — Sanitary  features  of  healthful  homes — Purity  of  soil,  air 
and  water — Definition  of  sewage  and  sewerage — Modern  conveniences — 
Sewer  air  and  germs  of  disease — Defective  plumbing  arrangements — Un- 
sanitary bathrooms — Badly  arranged  slop  sinks — Filthy  servants'  water 
closets — Pan  closets — Kitchen  sinks — Laundry  tubs — Pantry  sinks — 
Valve  and  plunger  closets — Untrapped  or  improperly  trapped  washbowls 
and  bathtubs — Overflow  pipes — Safe  waste  pipes — Urinals— Plumbing 
regulations — Faulty  arrangement  of  soil  and  waste  pipes — Material  for 
soil  pipes — Defective  pipe  joints — Unventilated  soil  pipes — Ventilating 
caps  and  return  bends — Fresh  air  inlets — Size  of  soil  and  waste  pipes — 
Branch  wastes — Defective  lead  pipe  joints — Sizes  of  branches  for  fix- 
tures— Cellar  drainage — House  drains  of  brick,  wood  and  earthenware — 

Necessity  of  general  house  ventilation 9-40 

CHAPTER  II. 

Traps  and  Systems  of  Trapping. 

Trapping  of  fixtures — Trap  on  the  main  house  drain — Fresh  air  inlet — 
Traps  for  water  closets — Traps  for  sinks,  bowls,  tubs — Mechanical 
traps — Anti-siphonage  trap  attachments  — Non-siphoning  traps — Trap 
venting — Bye-passes 4i-?i 

CHAPTER  III. 
Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  Buildings. 

Chief  features  of  internal  sewerage  system  of  buildings — Drainage  and 
sewerage  defined — Proper  arrangement  of  drain,  soil,  waste  and  vent 
pipes — Difference  between  English  and  American  system  explained — 
Tests  of  drainage  and  plumbing  system— Details  regarding  material  and 
joints  of  soil  pipes — Sizes  of  waste  pipes  for  fixtures — Final  tests  by 
peppermint  or  smoke 72-104 

CHAPTER  IV.     . 
Plumbing  Fixtures. 

Description  of  plumbing  fixtures — Kitchen  sinks — Grease  traps — Laundry 
tubs — Pantry  sinks — Refrigerators  — Stationary  washstands — Bathtubs — 
Slop  sinks — Urinals — Water  closets — Arrangement  of  plumbing  fixtures — 
Arrangement  of  bath  and  toilet  rooms — Local  ventilation — Care  and 
management  of  plumbing  fixtures — Care  of  plumbing  in  houses  closed 
during  the  summer — Prevention  of  freezing  of  plumbing  in  houses  closed 
during  the  winter 150-140 

I 


2  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Sewage  Removal  and  Sewage  Disposal. 

PAGE. 

Faulty  external  sewerage — Cesspools — Privies — Removal  of  Sewage — Sizes 
of  house  sewers — .Grades — Vitrified  pipe  sewers — Laying  sewer  pipes — 
Joints — Disposal  of  sewage — City  sewers  and  house  drain  connections — 
Sewerage  of  isolated  country  houses — Leaching  cesspools — Discharge  of 
sewage  into  water  courses — Application  of  sewage  to  the  soil— Surface 
irrigation—  Sub-surface  irrigation — Arrangement  of  disposal  field — Sew- 
age flush  tank — Automatic  intermittent  siphons — Earth  closets 141—194 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Leading  Principles  of  Scientific  House  Drainage  ami  Sanitary 

Plumbing. 

Pipe  system — Trap  system — Fixture  system — Soundness  of  material — Per- 
fection in  workmanship — Simplicity  in  arrangement — Accessibility — 
Safe  trapping — Thorough  ventilation — Efficient  flushing — Durability, 
efficiency  and  convenience — Noiselessness  in  operation — Prevention  of 
water  waste  and  protection  against  freezing — Absence  of  complicated 

mechanism— Cleanliness  and  purity 195-225 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Improved  Methods  of  House  Drainage. 

Plans  for  drainage — Plumbing  and  drainage  specifications — Improvements 
relating  to  material  for  drains — Screw-jointed  wrought  iron  soil  pipes — 
Traps — Sizes  of  pipes  used  for  drainage  purposes — Sizes  of  soil  and  waste 
pipes — Sizes  of  rainwater  conductors— Manner  of  laying  drains — Double 
system  of  pipes,  soil  pipes  for  water  closets  and  separate  waste  pipes  for 
baths  and  basins — English  system  of  plumbing  inapplicable  in  America 
on  account  of  climatic  conditions — Concealed  work — Advantage  of  mod- 
ern exposed  work — Modern  plumbing  confined  to  bathroom,  kitchen, 
pantry  and  laundry — Objections  to  water  closets  in  bathrooms — Improved 
sanitary  appliances — Water  closets — Washbasins — Bathtubs — Rainbaths — 
Sinks — Urinals — Testing  of  plumbing  work — Modification  of  trap  vent 
system — Plumbing  rules  and  regulations — Plumbing  work  done  by  days' 
work  and  by  contract — Outside  drainage  and  final  disposal  of  sewage. .  .226-254 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Proper  Arrangement  of  Water  Closet  and  Bath  Apartments. 
Bathrooms  in  private  residences — Location — Separation  of  water  closet  and 
bathroom — Heating — Ventilation  —  Lighting  —  Walls  and  floors  —  Ar- 
rangement of  bathroom  fixtures — Exposed  and  accessible  plumbing  work — 
Tenement  houses — Hotels — Club  houses — Office  buildings — Stores — 
Warehouses — Factories — Theatres — Churches  and  Synagogues — School- 
houses — Hospitals  for  insane — Prisons,  jails,  penal  and  reformatory  in- 
stitutions— Military  barracks,  armories,  soldiers'  homes  — Stables  and 
riding  academies — Railroad  stations  and  ferry  houses — Court  houses, 
city  halls,  capitol  buildings — Market  houses — Public  bath  houses 255-325 


CONTENTS.  3 

CHAPTER  IX. 

A  Plea  for  Sanitation  in  Factories  and  Workshops. 

PAGE. 

Need  of  factory  and  workshop  sanitation — Unhealthy  occupations — Per- 
sonal injuries  and  safety  appliances  to  prevent  them — Dust — Noxious 
vapors  and  gases — Cleanliness — Workrooms — Water  closet  accommoda- 
tions— Safety  from  fire 326—334 

CHAPTER  X. 

Sanitary  Drainage  of  Tenement  Houses. 

Improvement  of  sanitary  condition  of  the  homes  of  workingmen — Sanitary 
requirements  for  tenement  houses — Proper  system  of  drainage — Defects 
in  the  pipe  system — Defects  of  trapping — Defects  as  regards  fixtures — 
Suggestions  for  the  sanitary  drainage  of  tenement  houses — System  of 
pipes — System  of  trapping — System  of  fixtures 335-373 

CHAPTER  XL 

On  Testing  House  Drains  and  Plumbing  Work. 
Tests  of  the  materials — Tests  during  construction — Water  pressure  test  of 
soil,  waste  and  vent  pipe  system — Test  of  supply  pipe  system — Test  of 
gas  piping — Tests  after  completion — Smoke  and  peppermint  tests — De- 
scription of  peppermint  test — Description  of  smoke  test — Air  pressure 
test — Other  odor  tests — Periodical  inspection  of  plumbing  work 374-401 

CHAPTER  XIT. 

Simplified  Plumbing  Methods. 

Unnecessary  complication  of  modern  plumbing  work — Trap  venting  law — 
Objections  to  trap  ventilation — Simpler  methods  advocated  and  illus- 
trated— Press  opinions  on  plumbing  simplified — Report  of  William  At- 
kinson on  amendment  of  Brookline,  Mass.,  plumbing  laws — Remarks  of 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  plumbing  inspector  on  trap  ventilation — Views  of  Col. 
George  E.  Waring,  Jr,,  on  the  "back-airing"  of  traps— Experiments  of 
Herr  Unna,  of  Cologne,  Germany,  on  trap  siphonagc — Simplicity  versus 
complication — House  drainage  diagrams — Conclusion 402-446 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 
Fig.  i. — Unsanitary  arrangement  of  bathrooms  in  city  houses.  All  fixtures 

cased  up  in  woodwork 13 

Fig.  2. — Soil  pipe  from  water  closet  trap  to  the  sewer  without  extension  to 

roof,  and  without  fresh  air  pipe;  no  trap  on  main  drain 25 

Fig.  3. — Soil  pipe  and  waste  pipe  without  ventilation;  fixtures  trapped  by 

S-traps  without  vent 26 

Fig.  4. — Defective  ventilation  of  soil  pipe  by  a  small  vent  extension  to  the  roof.  27 
Fig  5. — Defective  method  of  soil  pipe  ventilation  by  sheet  metal  vent  exten- 
sion to  the  roof 28 

Fig.  6  — Top  of  soil  pipe  covered  with  return  bend  or  ventilating  cap 29 

Fig.  7. — Proper  method  of  ventilating  a  soil  pipe  by  full-size  extension  through 

roof,  and  fresh  air  inlet  at  foot  of  line 30 

Fig.  8. — Top  of  soil  pipe  located  too  near  a  chimney  flue 31 

Fig.  9. — Soil  pipe  extension  on  roof  located  too  near  an  attic  window 32 

Fig.  10. — Proper  method  of  making  offset  in  a  vent  pipe;  enlargement  of  pipes 

smaller  than  four  inches  below  roof 33 

Fig.  ii. — Wrong  method  of  offset  in  a  vent  line 34 

Fig.  12. — Soil  pipe  extended  full  size;  fresh  air  vent;  no  trap  on  main  drain, 

but  each  fixture  trapped 42 

Fig.  13. — House  drain  trapped  by  a  running  trap,  fresh  air  pipe  on  house  side 

of  trap,  trap  under  each  fixture,  soil  pipe  extended  full  size  above 

the  roof 43 

Fig.  14. — Fixtures  trapped,  soil  pipe  extended  full  size  above  roof;  house  drain 

left  untrapped  and  without  fresh  air  inlet 44 

Fig.  15. — House  drain  trapped  by  a  disconnecting  trap;  fixtures  in  the  house 

left  untrapped;  soil  pipe  extended  full  size  above  roof 45 

Fig.  16. — House  drain  trap,  with  fresh  air  inlet  opening 46 

Fig.  17. — Trap  on  house  drain  located  in  a  manhole  with  open  cover 50 

Fig.  18. — Trap  on  house  drain  located  in  manhole  with  tight  cover 50 

Fig.  19. — View  of  Bower's  trap *. . .  .  56 

Fig.  20  — Waring's  sewer  gas  check  valve 56 

Fig,  21. — Cudell  trap 57 

Fig.  22. — Sanitas  trap 59 

Fig.  23. — Puro  trap 60 

Fig.  24. — Hydric  trap 61 

Fig.  25. — Ideal  trap 62 

Fig.  26  — S-trap  with  vent  pipe  at  crown  of  trap 64 

Fig.  27. — Stack  of  air  pipe  for  a  number  of  S-traps 64 

Fig.  28. — Branch  vent  from  fixture  entering  the  vertical  vent  pipe  too  low; 

correct  position  indicated  in  dotted  lines 65 

Fig.  29. — Imperfect  arrangement  of  branch  vent  pipe  by  "  bowing"  down. .  .  66 

Fig  30. — Objectionable  bye-pass  arrangement  on  vent  pipes 67 

Fig.  31. — S-trap  vented  to  prevent  a  long  dead  end  in  the  waste  pipe 68 

Fig.  32. — Non-siphoning  trap  under  bowl,  where  this  is  near  a  thoroughly 

ventilated  soil  pipe 69 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 
Fig-  33- — Diagram  illustrating  the  application  of  the  water  pressure  test  to 

the  soil,  drain  and  waste  pipe  system  in  a  city  house 82 

Fig-  34- — Section  showing  the  drain,  soil  and  waste  pipe  system  of  a  country 

house 85 

Fig-  35- — Illustration  showing  difference  between  common  steam  and  recessed 

drainage  fittings 96 

Fig.  36. — Watts'  "  Asphyxiator  "  smoke-testing  machine 101 

Fig-  37- — Burns  and  Baillie's  "  Eclipse  "  smoke-testing  machine 101 

Fig.  38. — American  smoke-testing  machine 102 

Fig-  39- — Improved  American  smoke-testing  machine 103 

Fig.  40. — Large  American  smoke-testing  machine 104 

Fig  41. — Plan  of  a  modern  bathroom 128 

Fig.  42. — Elevation  showing  exposed  plumbing  in  a  modern  bathroom 129 

Fig.  43. — Plan  showing  water  closet  located  separate  from  bathroom 130 

Fig.  44. — Plan  illustrating  separation  of  water  closet  and  bathroom 131 

Fig.  45. — Local  ventilation  of  plumbing  fixtures  by  connection  with  a  heated 

vent  flue 132 

Fig.  46. — Cone  of  filtration 148 

Fig.  47. — Cone  of  pollution 149 

Fig.  48. — Proper  method  of  laying  earthen  drains 159 

Fig.  49. — Plan  showing  disposal  of  sewage  from  a  country  house  into  a  water- 
course with  tidal  current.  The  sewage  tank  is  shown  in  detail  in 

Fig.  50 165 

Fig.  50. — Detail  of  sewage  tank  with  emptying  gate  valves  operated  by  hand.  166 

Fig.  51. — Disposal  of  household  wastes  by  surface  irrigation 168 

Fig.  52. — Plan  of  country  house  with  sewage  disposal  system  by  sub-surface 

irrigation.  The  flush  tank  is  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  66 174 

Fig.  53- — Profile  along  line  of  sewer  from  house  to  sub-surface  irrigation  field, 

as  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  52 175 

Fig.  54  — Absorption  tiles  with  gutters  and  caps 176 

Fig.  55- — Manner  of  laying  absorption  drains 176 

Fig.  56. — Y-branch  and  Tee-branch  for  absorption  drains 177 

Fig.  57- — Cross-section  through  a  trench,  with  absorption  drains 177 

Fig.  58. — Plan  of  sub-surface  irrigation  system  on  level  ground 178 

Fig-  59- — Plan  of  sub-surface  irrigation  field  on  slightly  irregular  ground 179 

Fig.  60. — Plain  hopper  for  slop  water  disposal 180 

Fig.  61.— Wooden  tank  for  slop  water  disposal 181 

Fig.  62. — Field's  flush  tank  with  settling  chamber  for  sewage  disposal 183 

Fig.  63. — Field's  annular  siphon 183 

Fig  64. — Plan  and  section  of  modified  Field's  sewage  flush  tank 185 

Fig.  65. — Plan  and  vertical  section  of  round  sewage  flush  tank,  with  Rhoads- 

Williams  automatic  siphon 187 

Fig.  66. — Plan  and  vertical  section  of  oblong  sewage  flush  tank,  with  Rhoads- 

Williams  automatic  siphon 1 89 

Fig.  67. — Plain  earth  closet 193 

Fig.  68. — Rear  hall  bathroom 258 

Fig.  69. — Bathroom  in  centre  of  house 250 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

Fig.  70. — Plan  showing  bathroom  between  front  and  r?ar  rooms 260 

Fig,  71. — Bathroom  in  rear  extension;  water  closet  separate 261 

Fig.  72. — Bathroom  in  rear  extension;  water  closet  separate 262 

Fig.  73- — Bathroom  extension 263 

Fig.  74. — Bathroom  extension 264 

Fig.  75- — Bathroom  in  rear  extension;  separate  water  closet  for  servants  access- 
ible from  rear  hall 265 

Fig.  76. — End  elevation  of  bathroom,  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  74 270 

Fig.  77. — End  elevation  of  bathroom,  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  74 270 

Fig.  78. — Side  elevation  of  bathroom,  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  74. 271 

Fig.  79.  — Plan  for  a  general  guests'  toilet  room  for  a  large  hotel 289 

Fig.  So. — Plan  of  a  ladies'  toilet  room,  with  lavatories,  in   a  large  department 

store 299 

Fig.  81. — Plan  of  a  balcony  floor  of  a  theatre,  showing  toilet  room  accommo- 
dations for  the  public  and  the  stage  performers 304 

Fig.  82. — Plan  of  a  wrater  closet  pavilion  for  a  large  school  house 309 

Fig.  83. — Plan  showing  the  location  of  plumbing  in  a  side  wing  of  a  cottage 

hospital 311 

Fig.  84. — Detail  of  plumbing  in  cottage  hospital,  illustrated  in  Fig.  83 312 

Fig.  85. — Plan  showing  hospital  plumbing  located  in  a  semi-detached  tower. .  .  314 
Fig.  86. — Plan  of  a  congregate  bathroom  in  a  large  hospital  for  the  insane.  ...  316 
Fig.  87. — Plan  showing  toilet  room  for  a  barrack  building  for  a  soldiers' home.  319 
Fig.  88. — Plan  of  toilet  room,  lavatories  and  spray  baths  of  a  large  armory 

building 321 

Fig.  89. — Plan  of  a  public  rain  bath 324 

Fig.  90. — Section  through  bathroom  on  second  floor,  and  through  butler's  j>an- 

try  and  toilet  room  on  first  floor,  showing  simplified  plumbing. .  .  411 
Fig.  91. — Plan  and  section  showing  simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of  lava- 
tories   412 

Fig.  92. — Section  showing  simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of  hotel  toilet 
rooms,  with  two  water  closets,  one  wash  basin  and  one  bath- 
room on  each  floor 414 

Fig.  93. — Plan  of  toilet  room  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  92 415 

Fig.  94. — Plan  of  bathroom  (the  section  and  arrangement  of  the  plumbing  for 

same  are  shown  in  Fig.  95) 416 

Fig.  95. — Section  of  simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of  bathrooms  located 

vertically  over  each  over.     (For  plan  see  Fig.  94) 417 

Fig.  96. — Pipe  system  used  in  experiments  on  trap  siphonage 434 

Fig.  97. — Spiral  motion  of  water  in  vertical  soil  pipes 435 

Fig.  98. — Concave  surface  of  wrater  flowing  through  a  horizontal  pipe 436 

Fig.  99. — Form  of  bowl  and  trap  used  in  some  of  the  experiments  described..  437 
Fig.  100. — Glass  gauge  attached  to  crown  of  traps  used  in  the  experiments.  . .  438 

Fig.  101. — Wire  basket  for  vent  pipe  on  roof 440 

Fig.  102. — System  of  drainage  for  a  house  arranged  according  to  the  present 

rules  and  regulations  with  "  back-air  pipes  "  for  all  traps 444 

Fig.  103. — System  of  drainage  for  a  house  arranged  in  accordance  with  simpli- 
fied plumbing  methods  advocated  in  this  chapter 445 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Plate  I. — A  modern  bathroom  in  a  private  residence.     (Drawn  especially  for 

this  book) Between  pages  1 29  and  130 

Plate  II. — Private  bathroom  in  hotel Between  pages  268  and  269 

Plate  III. — Perspective  view  of  bathroom Between  pages  268  and  269 

Plate  IV. — View  of  single  spray  bath  for  bathing  insane  patients 

Between  pages  315  and  316 

Plate  V. — Interior  view  of  large  bathroom  with  spray  baths  at  the  Utica  State 

Hospital Between  pages  315  and  316 

Plate  VI. — Comparison  of  simplified  and  complicated  plumbing  methods 

Between  pages  442  and  443 


I. 

DEFECTIVE   PLUMBING   AND   SEWER  GAS. 

All  who  are  engaged  in  building  construction  must 
devote,  at  some  time  or  other,  some  attention  to> 
the  subjects  discussed  in  this  volume.  Architects, 
engineers,  builders,  mechanics,  physicians  and  sani- 
tarians, house-owners  and  householders,  should  be 
interested  in  it.  One  branch  of  the  general  problem 
of  house  sanitation  comprises  the  sewerage  of  the 
dwelling  and  the  house  plumbing,  which  are  of  more 
than  ordinary  importance  from  a  health  point  of  view. 

In  the  planning  of  a  new  house  many  details 
should  be  most  carefully  considered,  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  Its  site  and  location  ;  the  character  of  the 
subsoil  of  the  building  lot ;  the  aspect  of  the  house ; 
the  construction  of  proper  foundations  and  of  dry  and 
well-lighted  cellars ;  the  means  for  preventing  the 
dampness  of  walls  ;  the  proper  building  materials  ; 
the  arrangement  of  rooms,  halls,  closets  and  staircases 
most  consistent  with  health,  comfort  and  conven- 
ience ;  the  lighting,  warming  and  ventilation  of  the 
house  ;  its  drainage,  water  supply  and  sewerage  ;  the ' 
arrangement  of  plumbing  fixtures  and  plumbing- 
work  ;  the  removal  and  proper  disposal  of  kitchen 
garbage,  of  slops,  ashes,  of  excreta  and  liquid  wastes 
of  the  household. 


TO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  soil  on  which  the  house  is  to  be  erected  should 
be  free  from  impurities  and  sewage  contamination  ; 
an  abundance  of  fresh  air  of  proper  temperature  and  a 
continuous  removal  of  vitiated  air  are  vital  necessities 
for  the  health  of  the  inmates  ;  a  never-ceasing  and 
bountiful  supply  of  pure  and  wholesome  water  is  re- 
quired for  drinking  and  cooking  purposes,  for  daily 
ablutions  of  the  body,  for  cleaning  utensils,  washing 
linen,  scrubbing  floors  and  windows,  for  flushing 
plumbing  fixtures  and  other  uses. 

The  water  brought  into  the  dwelling  under  pressure 
must  be  removed  from  it  after  use,  being  then  more 
or  less  befouled  by  waste  matters  from  the  human 
body,  from  soiled  linen,  or  from  personal  ablutions 
and  mixed  with  greasy  matters  from  the  pantry,  scul- 
lery and  kitchen.  Befouled  water  from  the  household 
(to  which  may  be  added  the  waste  liquids  from 
stables  and  from  manufacturing  establishments  of  all 
descriptions)  is  called  sewage,  and  the  object  of  a 
sewerage  system  is  first,  the  immediate  removal,  by 
means  of  water,  of  all  sewage  from  habitations,  and 
second,  its  disposal  in  a  manner  so  as  to  render  it  not 
only  innocuous,  but,  if  possible,  useful. 

For  convenience  in  performing  the  various  duties 
of  domestic  cleanliness,  and  further  for  health  and 
comfort's  sake,  our  modern  houses  are  furnished  with 
set  fixtures,  water  closets,  basins,  tubs  and  sinks,  sup- 
plied with  hot  and  cold  water,  and  connected  by  waste 
pipes  to  the  drainage  system.  The  proper  planning 
of  an  efficient  system  of  water  supply  and  sewerage 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  II 

for  a  building  requires  much  skill,  practical  experi- 
ence and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The 
hints  and  suggestions  given  hereafter  relate  not  so 
much  to  proper  mechanical  execution  of  the  details  of 
plumbing  work  as  to  a  sound  sanitary  arrangement 
of  the  drainage  system.  Upon  the  latter  will  largely 
depend  the  future  immunity  of  the  building  from 
sewer  air,  and  consequently  the  freedom  of  its  in- 
mates from  certain  preventible  diseases,  generally  at- 
tributed to  the  entrance  of  gases  from  the  sewer  or 
cesspool  through  defective  plumbing  work. 

I  shall  not  discuss  at  length  the  much  vexed  ques- 
tion of  the  influence  of  sewer  air  in  developing  or 
spreading  certain  epidemic  diseases.  I  believe  this  to 
be  a  question  which  only  biologists  and  physiologists 
are  competent  to  answer.  Neither  architects,  nor  en- 
gineers, nor  physicians  should  pronounce  an  individ- 
ual opinion,  unless  they  have  devoted  years  of  actual 
study  and  experimenting  to  organic  chemistry,  to.biol- 
ogy  and  to  the  germ  theory  of  disease. 

While  this  scientific  question  is  pending,  it  seems 
advisable  to  continue  to  assume  that  gases  originating 
from  the  decomposition  of  animal  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter, especially  if  the  decomposition  goes  on  in  the 
absence  of  oxygen,  are  capable  of  doing  harm,  when 
entering  a  dwelling.  Just  how  much  harm  they  may 
do  will  largely  depend  upon  the  constitution  of  the 
individual  exposed  to  the  influence  of  such  germ-con- 
taining atmosphere.  A  healthy  person,  having  much 
out-of-door  exercise,  mav  breathe  sewer  air  with  im- 


12  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

punity  ;  on  the  other  hand,  people  in  delicate  health, 
women  and  children,  may  suffer  severely  from  breath- 
ing impure  air,  the  consequences  being  slight  head- 
ache, nausea,  vomiting,  or  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  en- 
teric fever,  cholera,  diphtheria,  etc.  Likewise  will 
workingmen  engaged  for  a  whole  day  in  cleaning 
sewers  feel  the  influence  of  the  deadly  poison  less 
than  a  person  sleeping  in  an  unventilated  room  con- 
taining an  untrapped  wash  bowl  or  other  plumbing 
fixture. 

It  has  been  said  that  "  pure  air  and  plenty  of  it  is 
the  best  cure  for  sewer  gas."  This  is  undoubtedly 
true,  but  how  little  is  it  as  yet  understood.  An  abun- 
dant supply  of  this  life-giving  element,  "  pure  air,"  is 
needed  in  our  houses  in  order  to  effect  tht-  proper  ven- 
tilation of  living  and  sleeping  rooms,  in  particular  of 
the  closets  and  bathrooms  of  dwellings,  of  all  plumb- 
ing fixtures,  soil  and  waste  pipes,  of  the  house  drain, 
the  sewer  and  the  cesspool. 

Says  Dr.  George  Wilson  in  his  book,  "  Healthy  Life 
and  Healthy  Homes  "  : 

In  order  to  keep  the  air  of  the  house  pure  and  healthy^  there 
must  be  no  damp  foundations,  no  damp  walls,  no  dark  and  dingy 
cupboards  or  corners  to  confine  the  air  and  devitalize  it,  no  filth  ip 
or  around  the  dwelling  to  pollute  it,  and  no  overcrowding.  There 
should  be  cleanliness  everywhere,  adequate  means  of  ventilation, 
plenty  of  window  space  to  let  sufficient  light  into  every  room,  and 
proper  appliances  for  warming  during  cold  weather. 

Let  us  inquire  briefly,  with  reference  to  those  rooms 
containing  plumbing  fixtures,  what  the  actual  con- 
dition of  city  houses  has  been  during  the  past. 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  13 

Formerly  bathrooms  and  water  closet  apartments 
were  frequently  located  in  the  centre  of  the  house, 
with  no  other  light  but  that  from  a  window  opening 
into  the  staircase  hall  (Fig.  i).  One  looked  in  vain  for 
any  means  of  renewing  the  air  of  the  apartment.  In 
placing  the  bathroom  in  this  part  of  the  house,  it  did 
not  occur  to  either  architect,  house-owner  or  plumber 


Fig.  i.— Unsanitary  arrangement  of  bathrooms  in  City  Houses.     All  fixtures  cased  up 

in  woodwork. 


that  just  in  cases  where  a  room  containing  plumbing 
work  cannot  have  a  window  to  an  outside  wall,  ven- 
tilation is  essential,  much  more  so  than  costly  furni- 
ture, decorated  ceilings  or  artistic  wall  paper.  It  was 
not  unusual  in  former  days  to  find  water  closets  and 
urinals  placed  in  dark  closets,  lighted  by  a  gas  flame, 
with  no  other  outlet  for  the  products  of  combustion, 


14  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  any  possible  foul  gases,  than  into  the  hall  of  the 
house,  or,  what  was  infinitely  worse,  into  an  adjoin- 
ing bedroom.  Is  it  then  surprising  that  complaints 
of  sewer  air  should  have  been  frequent  and  loud  ? 

On  the  bedroom  floors  there  was  often  a  dark, 
damp,  unventilated  and  ill-smelling  closet,  which  con- 
tained a  slop-sink  or  a  slop-hopper,  into  which  the 
housemaid  poured  the  bed-chamber  slops.  Such  a 
closet  requires  ventilation  fully  as  much  as  the  water 
closet  apartment.  All  slop-sinks  have  large  surfaces 
exposed  to  spatterings,  and,  as  usually  constructed, 
receive  no  flush  of  clean  water  following  a  discharge 
from  a  slop-pail  ;  they  remain  fouled  with  dirty  mat- 
ter, which  soon  gives  off  offensive  odors.  The  air  of 
the  closet  is  never  changed,  except  when  the  door  is 
opened,  and  then  only  to  bring  its  fouled  atmosphere 
in  connection  with  the  air  of  other  parts  of  the  house. 

In  the  basement  we  often  found  a  nuisance  created 
by  the  servants'  water  closet.  The  most  remote,  ill- 
lighted  and  closely  confined  corner  of  the  basement 
or  cellar  was  generally  selected  for  it.  Could  there 
be  anything  astonishing  about  the  usual  condition  in 
which  such  apparatus  was  found  ?  The  closet  being 
located  in  a  dark,  out-of-the-way  place,  no  trouble 
was  taken  in  keeping  the  bowl  free  from  filth.  I  have 
seen  such  places  in  the  houses  of  wealthy,  refined  and 
intelligent  people,  in  the  very  worst  state  of  neglect 
and  untidiness,  being  seldom,  if  ever,  looked  after  by 
the  heads  of  the  family.  Yet  untidiness  of  the  ser- 
vants' water  closet  apparatus  does  not  remain  con- 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  15 

fined  to  this  apartment  alone,  but  creates  unwhole- 
some gases  which  spread  and  fill  the  entire  dwelling. 
My  picture  is  by  no  means  overdrawn,  and  I  know 
from  experience  extending  over  many  years  that  the 
facts  disclosed  were  the  rule,  not  the  exception,  in  the 
majority  of  homes. 

A  somewhat  closer  examination  of  the  fixtures  con- 
nected with  the  drainage  system  usually  revealed  the 
following  facts  :  The  servants'  water  closet  wras  of 
the  cheapest  and  worst  kind,  a  pan  closet,  encased  in 
tight  nailed  woodwork,  with  no  ventilation  under  the 
seat  nor  to  the  apartment.  The  removal  of  the  riser, 
seat  and  cover,  disclosed  a  floor  stained  by  leakage 
of  the  closet  valve,  and  ill-smelling  from,  the  absorp- 
tion of  spilled  urine  by  the  woodwork.  Dust  and 
dirt,  and  perhaps  vermin,  had  accumulated  in  the  hid- 
den corners.  The  closet  bowl  was  generally  flushed 
by  a  valve,  supplied  directly  from  the  rising  water 
main  of  the  house.  The  flushing  water  entered  the 
bowl  at  a  point  of  its  circumference  and  whirled 
around  in  a  spiral  motion,  unable  to  flush  the  bowl, 
which  accounted  for  its  generally  filthy  appearance. 
The  operation  of  pulling  the  handle  started  the  flush, 
at  the  same  time  it  caused  the  pan  which  closed  the 
outlet  of  the  bo\vl  to  tilt,  thus  dumping  its  contents 
into  the  container.  Each  time  this  was  done  a  puff 
of  sewer  air  from  the  container  entered  the  apart- 
ment. This  container  or  receiver  has  Keen  called  a 
"  hidden  chamber  of  horrors."  As  usually  constructed 
it  was  of  plain  iron,  with  rough  interior  surface,  of 


16  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

large  size  to  allow  the  movement  of  the  pan,  and  re- 
ceived no  flush  whatever^  Its  sides  soon  became 
coated  with  excrements,  putrefaction  began,  and 
"sewer  gas"  was  thus  generated  in  the  heart  of  the 
house.  The  plumber  may  have  assured  the  house- 
owner  that  he  had  put  a  trap  under  the  closet  to  cut 
off  the  gases  from  the  soil  pipe,  he  may  have  told  him 
that  there  was  an  additional  seal  against  gases  afforded 
by  the  water  in  the  pan,  and  seeing  all  the  compli- 
cated machinery  about  the  apparatus,  the  householder 
— generally  a  layman  in  such  matters — was  led  to 
believe  that  he  had  in  his  house  the  most  modern  and 
perfect  appliance.  It  certainly  was  a  most  perfect 
and  ingenious  apparatus — to  fill  the  house  with  nox- 
ious and  health-menacing  smells !  For  there  were 
openings  through  which  the  sewer  air  would  enter  the 
room,  even  when  the  pan  was  closed  and  the  closet 
outlet  sealed.  The  hole  in  the  container  for  the  spin- 
dle which  works  the  pan  was  never  made  tight,  and 
thus  a  direct  connection  between  the  container  and 
the  room  was  established.  The  bowl  was  fastened  to 
the  container  by  a  mere  putty  joint.  This  crumbled 
away  in  time,  or  was  eaten  by  rats,  and  thus  another 
road  for  the  gases  of  the  container  was  opened.  The 
trap  of  the  water  closet  was  another  source  of  annoy- 
ance ;  it  necessarily  accumulated  excremental  matter, 
as  the  valve.flush  was  not  sufficiently  strong  to  drive 
such  matters  through  the  dip  of  the  trap.  In  old 
houses  this  trap  was  often  of  the  worst  kind,  a  D-trap, 
which  in  a  short  time  became  a  filthy  cesspool  in  the 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER   GAS.  \J 

room.  The  pan  quickly  corroded  by  the  action  of 
sewer  air,  and  thus  the  security  of  the  double  water 
seal  was  lost,  while  the  bowl  lost  its  water  and  became 
more  readily  fouled  on  this  account.  The  floor  under 
the  pan  closet  was  often  provided  with  a  safe  to  catch 
drippings,  and  its  waste  pipe  was  in  many  cases  run 
into  the  trap,  below  its  water  line.  Thus  the  foul 
water  from  the  trap  standing  back  in  the  drip  pipe 
evaporated  into  the  apartment. 

In  some  instances  a  cheap  hopper,  generally  of  iron, 
was  used  for  servants'  closets.  This  was  no  less 
objectionable  than  the  pan  closet,  its  flush  being  en- 
tirely insufficient  to  keep  the  rough  inside  of  the  hop- 
per free  from  excreta. 

The  kitchen  sink,  usually  of  iron,  but  sometimes 
of  soapstone  or  other  material,  was  connected  to  the 
nearest  soil  or  waste  pipe  by  a  branch  pipe  of  lead, 
which  as  a  rule  was  of  too  large  a  diameter,  and  con- 
sequently accumulated  deposits.  It  frequently  jo'ined 
the  soil  pipe  or  the  main  drain  without  even  the  in- 
terposition of  a  trap.  When  trapped,  the  trap  was 
often  faulty  in  design,  for  instance  a  bell  trap,  or, 
when  an  S-trap,  it  was  much  too  large  and  conse- 
quently ill-flushed.  Bell  traps  contained  in  their 
upper  part  a  strainer,  and  as  the  latter  was  remov- 
able, kitchen  servants  readily  acquired  the  pernicious 
habit  of  lifting  it  to  brush  all  kinds  of  refuse  into  the 
outlet.  They  hereby  not  only  caused  frequent  ob- 
structions of  the  trap  and  waste  pipe,  but  they  estab- 
lished a  direct  connection  between  the  kitchen  and 


l8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

the  gases  of  the  sink  waste  pipe,  when  the  strainer 
was  removed.  In  older  houses  the  kitchen  sink  was 
encased  with  carpentry,  and  the  foul,  dark  space 
underneath  the  sink  was  utilized  for  the  storage  of 
cooking  utensils,  kerosene  cans,  cleaning  rags,  old 
shoes,  scrubbing  brushes  and  other  matters. 

Laundry  tubs  were  formerly  of  wood,  and  con- 
tributed, after  long  use,  their  share  to  the  pollution  of 
the  air  of  the  house.  Such  tubs  are  objectionable,  not 
only  because  they  get  leaky,  but  because  the  wood 
absorbs  the  filth'  of  soiled  linen,  and  is  difficult  to 
clean  ;  when  old,  they  give  off  a  very  offensive  odor. 
Moreover,  they  were  generally  closed  up  tightly 
underneath,  and  the  floor  became  ill-smelling  from 
leakage  and  began  quickly  to  rot. 

The  copper  sink  in  the  butler's  pantry  off  the  din- 
ing-room usually  had  a  large  reservoir  or  bottle  trap 
on  the  large  waste  pipe.  Ample  size  ,of  both  was 
formerly  deemed  necessary  to  prevent  the  choking 
up  of  the  pipe  and  trap  with  grease.  But  the  small 
stream  from  the  pantry  sink  was  not  able  thoroughly 
to  flush  the  waste  pipe,  and  the  bottle  trap,  placed  to 
act  as  a  grease  trap,  and  which  should  have  been  fre- 
quently cleaned,  was  forgotten,  not  being  easily  ac- 
cessible, and  left  to  take  care  of  itself.  It  filled  with 
putrid  grease,  the  sides  of  the  waste  pipe  were  coated 
with  a  similar  matter,  the  overflow  pipe  from  the  sink 
formed  a  channel  for  gases,  and  thus  the  air  of  the 
butler's  pantry  became  contaminated. 

The  toilet-rooms  and  the  bathrooms  always  con- 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  19 

tained  fixtures  enclosed  with  tight  carpentry.  The 
water  closet  was  generally  a  pan  closet  flushed  from 
a  valve,  or  in  some  cases  supplied  with  water  from  a 
special  cistern.  Later  on  it  was  of  a  more  expensive 
pattern,  either  a  valve  closet  or  a  plunger  closet. 
Both  had  serious  defects,  and  although  improvements 
upon  the  pan  closet,  neither  in  the  end  proved  to  be 
satisfactory  types  of  apparatus.  The  flap-valve  of 
valve  closets  leaked  after  long  use,  permitting  the 
water  to  run  out  of  the  bowl.  If  the  use  of  the  closet 
was  continued  while  in  such  a  condition,  the  flap- 
valve  and  the  walls  of  the  container  became  coated 
with  filth.  The  same  coating  with  filth  occurred  after 
a  time  with  the  plunger  and  plunger  chamber  of  the 
other  type  of  closet. 

The  wash  bowls  and  bath  tubs,  and  their  traps  and 
waste  pipes,  were  seldom  properly  designed  and  con- 
structed. The  wastes  were  often  left  in  direct  com- 
munication with  a  soil  or  waste  pipe  ;  in  other  cases 
they  were  trapped  only  by  running  them  into  the 
water  closet  trap  below  the  water  line.  If  this  trap 
became  displaced  or  its  contents  siphoned  out,  a  free 
communication  was  established  between  the  soil  pipe 
and  the  bathroom.  Where  the  wastes  entered  the 
water  closet  trap  above  the  water  line,  the  gases  of 
the  container  found  a  ready  exit  at  the  bath  or  bowl. 
A  common  defect  of  bowls  and  bath  tubs  consisted 
in  their  overflow  pipe  joining  the  waste  pipe  beyond 
the  trap.  But  even  where  overflow  and  waste  pipe 
were  both  trapped  by  the  common  S-trap,  the  water 


2O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

seal  of  the  latter  was  broken  by  siphonage,  or  it  evap- 
orated if  the  bowl  was  not  used  for  any  length  of 
time.  When  the  soil  and  waste  pipes,  into  which  the 
bowl  or  bath  tub  wastes  delivered,  had  no  ventilation 
by  an  upward  extension  through  the  roof,  the  S-trap 
was  sometimes  forced  by  back-pressure.  Finally  the 
water  in  the  trap  absorbed  gases  and  possibly  germs 
of  disease,  which  were  given  off,  on  the  house  side  of 
the  trap,  into  the  room  when  the  water  in  the  trap 
was  agitated. 

Stationary  wash  stands  had  either  common  bowls 
with  outlet  at  the  bottom  closed  by  a  plug,  which 
was  hung  to  a  brass  or  plated  safety  chain,  or  else 
they  were  of  the  "  tip-up  "  type,  in  which  case  the 
bowl  was  emptied  by  tilting  its  contents  into  a  larger 
concentric  bowl  underneath.  Both  arrangements 
were  unsanitary,  for  soapsuds  adhered  to  the  many 
links  of  the  chain,  which  was  difficult  to  clean,  and 
the  lower  bowl  of  tip-up  basins  likewise  presented  a 
far  from  satisfactory  appearance.  Being  covered  and 
not  easily  accessible,  it  was  seldom  cleaned  ;  filth 
gradually  accumulated  in  it,  and  its  putrefaction 
caused  great  annoyance.  The  common  chain  and 
plug  arrangement  for  bath  tubs  was  in  no  respect 
better  than  that  for  wash  bowls. 

Bad  smells  from  wash  bowls  or  bath  tubs  are  also 
traced  to  the  overflow  pipes,  which  remain  coated, 
should  an  occasional  overflow  occur,  with  slime,  and 
receive  no  flushing  whatever.  For  these  reasons  hid- 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  21 

den  and  inaccessible  overflow  pipes  should  be  dis- 
pensed with  wherever  possible. 

Stationary  bowls  and  tubs,  when  lined  underneath 
with  a  safe  to  prevent  damage  to  ceilings,  had  safe 
drip  pipes  to  carry  off  any  overflowing  water  or  occa- 
sional drips  from  leaky  coupling  or  other  joints.  The 
arrangement  of  such  drip  pipes  was  frequently  de- 
fective, for  sometimes  they  were  left  in  direct  connec- 
tion with  soil  or  waste  pipes  ;  in  other  cases  they  were 
trapped,  the  traps  becoming  ineffective  by  evapora- 
tion of  the  water.  In  houses  of  more  recent  construc- 
tion a  weeping  pipe  was  arranged  to  supply  water  to 
such  trap  at  frequent  intervals,  but  even  this  device 
was  unsatisfactory  and  dangerous. 

A  fixture  common  to  office  rooms  and  to  lavatories 
or  toilet-rooms  adjoining  billiard  rooms  in  private 
houses,  is  the  urinal.  It  was  usually  in  an  extremely 
nasty  condition,  and  its  appearance  most  unsightly, 
owing  to  the  feeble  flush  from  a  stop-cock,  which  was 
unable  to  cleanse  the  urinal.  Urine  remained  spat- 
tered on  the  bowl  or  sometimes  was  spilled  over  on  the 
floor,  and  its  rapid  decomposition  created  most  pun- 
gent and  disgusting  odors.  Unless  of  an  approved 
pattern,  with  plenty  of  water  in  the  bowl,  and  with  a 
strong  flush  of  water  driven  through  a  flushing  rim 
and  derived  from  a  cistern,  urinals  for  private  houses 
should  not  be  tolerated.  Moreover,  the  improved 
modern  water  closet  can  generally  be  so  constructed 
and  fitted  up  as  to  be  used  in  place  of  a  urinal. 

When  plumbing    work    became  regulated  by  law 


22  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

in  cities  and  controlled  by  plumbing  inspectors  of 
the  Board  of  Health,  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
quality  and  general  character  of  the  plumber's  work 
resulted,  but  constant  vigilance  was  necessary  to 
secure  the  proper  carrying  out  of  these  regulations. 
The  general  public,  in  particular  the  vast  number  of 
families  in  cities  who  are  dependent  for  shelter  on 
tenement  houses,  apartments,  or  small  houses  built 
for  speculation  and  for  rent,  should  be  thankful  for 
the  many  benefits  derived  from  the  enforcement  of 
the  plumbing  regulations.  Briefly  stated,  bathrooms 
in  the  centre  of  the  house  were  placed  around  light 
an'd  air  shafts  ;  less  woodwork  was  used  in  fitting  up 
sinks  and  tubs  ;  water  closets  and  wash  bowls  were 
provided  with  hinged  doors  to  render  possible  fre- 
quent inspections  of  hidden  parts  of  the  fixtures.  The 
pan  closet,  although  still  used  to  some  extent,  was 
supplied  from  a  special  flushing  cistern,  and  had  a 
properly  vented  S-trap.  In  addition  to  this,  every  tub, 
bowl,  sink,  etc.,  was  provided  with  a  separate  vented 
trap. 

The  faulty  arrangement  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  in 
dwellings  aggravated  the  danger  arising  from  defect- 
ive plumbing  fixtures.  The  principal  defects  were  : 
improper  material  for  pipes,  bad  manner  of  making 
pipe  joints,  insufficient  or  defective  ventilation  of  the 
soil  and  waste  pipe  system,  and  use  of  pipes  of  too 
large  calibre. 

Lead  soil  pipes,  although  still  the  rule  in  England, 
have,  fortunately,  in  this  country,  become  a  thing  of 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  23 

the  past.  They  were  often  found  corroded  and 
honey-combed  by  the  action  of  sewer  air. 

Cast  iron  pipes  with  socket  joints  have  since  then 
taken  their  place.  These  are  sold  in  lengths  of  five 
feet,  with  a  single  or  double  hub,  and  numerous  fittings 
are  manufactured  to  provide  for  changes  of  direction, 
for  branch  wastes,  etc.  In  ordinary  contract  work, 
the  plumber  formerly  used  what  was  called  "  light  or 
standard  soil  pipe,"  a  very  flimsy  article  of  manufac- 
ture, which  should  never  be  tolerated  wherever  sound 
work  is  expected.  The  better  grade  of  soil  pipe  in 
the  market,  the  so-called  extra  heavy  soil  pipe  and 
fittings,  the  price  of  which  Is  about  double  that  of 
light  pipe,  were  at  first  specified  only  for  public  or 
other  large  expensive  buildings,  while  nowadays  they 
are  used  almost  exclusively  everywhere. 

Experience  with  extra  heavy  cast  iron  soil  pipe 
warrants  me  in  saying  that  even  the  latter  is  very 
often  decidedly  bad,  having  an  uneven  thickness  of 
metal,  and  consequently  being  in  its  weakest  part  no 
thicker  than  "  light  "  pipe.  As  in  all  other  engineer- 
ing structures,  the  strength  and  durability  of  a  sys- 
tem of  drainage  should  be  determined  by  the  strength 
of  its  weakest  point.  It  will  thus  be  readily  under- 
stood that  extra  heavy  soil  pipe  is  no  better,  although 
more  costly,  than  light  pipe,  where  manufacturers 
take  no  pains  to  secure  a  uniform  thickness  of  the 
metal.  In  plumbers'  soil  pipe,  sand  holes  or  flaws, 
which  are  a  common  occurrence,  are  not  readily  de- 
tected by  subsequent  inspection,  especially  if  the  pipe 


24  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

is  coated  with  tar  or  asphalt,  or  enameled.  An 
equally  weak  point  with  plumbers'  pipe  is  the  shape 
and  strength  of  the  hub,  as  the  tightness  of  the  joints 
depends  upon  them.  The  worst  defect  in  plumbing- 
work  of  cheaply  built  houses  was  the  manner  of  tight- 
ening the  joints  in  cast  iron  soil  pipes. 

No  other  part  of  a  common  plumbing  job  showed 
so  many  defects  as  a  stack  of  iron  soil  or  waste  pipe ; 
there  was  scarcely  another  detail  in  a  system  of  drain 
pipes  for  a  dwelling  in  which  so  much  rascality  or 
criminal  stupidity  was  shown  as  in  the  manner  of 
making  joints  in  iron  pipe,  and  this  was  especially  the 
case  wherever  architects  or  builders  permitted  the 
pipes  to  be  built  into  walls,  inasmuch  as  under  such 
circumstances  defective  joints  were  quite  readily  cov- 
ered up  and  brought  out  of  sight.  Such  pipes  were 
formerly  often  jointed  with  paper,  covered  with  sand, 
or  else  some  cheap  mortar  was  thrown  into  the  space 
between  spigot  and  socket ;  in  other  cases  putty  or 
red  lead  was  used.  Wherever  joints  were  in  sight 
some  lead  was,  perhaps,  poured  on  top  of  the  sand  to 
give  the  joint  the  appearance  of  having  been  done 
with  the1  proper  material.  Workmen  were  sometimes 
content  with  filling  the  joint  with  lead  poured  in  while 
hot,  but  omitted  the  most  important  operation,  that 
of  caulking  the  joints  after  the  lead  had  cooled  off. 
But  even  where  a  gasket  of  hemp  or  oakum,  a  ladle 
full  of  hot  lead  and  caulking  tools  were  used,  care- 
lessness or  ignorance  of  the  mechanic  had  much  to  do 
with  improper  and  leaky  joints.  The  manner  of  ap- 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS. 


plying  the  gaskets  of  oakum,  the  quality  of  the  melted 
lead,  its  purity,  the  temperature  to  which  it  was  kept 
in  the  pot  on  the  fire,  the  manner  of  pouring  the  lead, 
and  finally  the  operation  of  caulking  it  after  shrink- 
ing, are  details  worthy  of  careful  consideration,  which 
were  but  seldom  looked  after  in  plumbing  a  building. 
It  would  not  have  required  much  reflection  on  the 

part  of  the  mechanic  to 
know  that  the  safety  of 
the  occupants  of  a  house 
depended  to  a  great  ex- 
tent upon  the  perfect 
tightness  of  the  joints  in 
waste  and  soil  pipes.  But 
the  health  of  the  inmates 
was  unfortunately  not  a 
matter  usually  consid- 
ered by  the  speculative 
builder  or  by  the  average 
plumber.  It  is  possible 
to  make  joints  in  cast  iron 
soil  pipe  tight — if  the 
thickness  of  the  pipe  hubs 
is  increased,  if  the  pipe  is 
carefully  selected,  inspected  and  tested  with  hydraulic 
pressure  before  leaving  the  foundry,  or  at  any  rate 
before  coating  the  pipes  with  a  rust-preventing  solu- 
tion— but  even  then  it  requires  proper  care  and  a  good 
deal  of  attention  in  making  the  joints.  Unless  the 
Board  of  Health  or  Building  Department  regulations 


Fig.  2. — Soil  pipe  from  water  closet  trap  to  the 
sewer  without  extension  to  roof,  and  with- 
out fresh  air  pipe  ;  no  trap  on  main  drain. 


26 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


require  the  testing  of  drain,  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes 
under  the  supervision  of  inspectors  appointed  by  the 
Board,  or  unless  an  expert  engineer  superintends  the 
drainage  work  in  a  dwelling,  care  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
taken  to  attain  such  results.  If  the  subsequent  test- 
ing of  soil  and  waste  pipes  shows  a  leak,  the  plumber 
is  very  apt  to  excuse  himself  by  throwing  all  blame 

upon  the  manufacturer. 
He  will  claim,  and  I  have 
frequently  heard  the 
statement  made,  that  the 
latter  does  not  manufac- 
ture pipes  with  hubs  of 
sufficient  strength  t  o 
withstand  the  severe 
knocking  occasioned  by 
the  caulking  tool.  While 
this  was  formerly  true, 
it  cannot  now  be  con- 

^3_  "T"  —y—  sidered  a  valid  reason  for 

not  making  tight  joints. 


Fig  3.-So 


I  pipe  and  waste  pipe  without  venti- 


lation  ;    fixtures   trapped   by    S-traps  without     T     Kpl ip-i^P      that 

vent. 

plumbers  join  in  the  ear- 
nest protest  of  the  best  architects  and  civil  engineers 
against  such  "  light  soil  pipe,"  or  against  extra  heavy 
pipe  with  uneven  thickness  of  metal  or  hubs  of  insuffi- 
cient strength,  they  will  succeed  in  securing  a  better 
article  of  manufacture. 

It  has  been  my   personal  observation  that  honest 
and  conscientious  plumbers — with  best  possible  inten- 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS. 


tions  to  do  only  first-class  work — were  at  times  un- 
able to  caulk  the  lead  in  the  joints  sufficiently  tight 
without  splitting  the  hub  of  the  pipe.  In  other  cases 
the  joint  could  not  be  made  tight  owing  to  the  im- 
possibility of  reaching  all  parts  of  the  lead  in  a  joint 
with  the  usual  caulking  tools,  the  soil  pipe  being 

located  in  a  recess  or  a 
partition.  On  the  other 
hand,  heavy  cast  iron 
socket  pipes  can  be 
tightly  joined,  as  is 
proven  by  the  joints  of 
gas  and  water  mains.  In 
the  one  case  leakage  of 
illuminating  gas,  and  in 
the  other  \vaste  of  water, 
are  effectually  prevented 
by  properly  made  joints. 
There  are  still  some 
houses — and  formerly 
there  were  a  great  many 
—in  every  large  city 
where  soil  pipes  have  no 

Fig   4 — Defective  ventilation   of  soil   pipe   by   a  •  i      ,  •  -i        , 

small  vent  extension  to  the  roof.  3.11    CirCUldLlOn      \\  Hclie  V  CT, 

but  stop  at  the  trap  of 

the  highest  water  closet,  and  where  waste  pipes 
are  run  only  from  the  drain  in  the  cellar  to  the 
fixtures,  such  as  sinks,  tubs,  bowls,  etc.,  without 
upward  extension  (Figs.  2  and  3).  In  many  cases 
the  plumber  thought  he  had  provided  a  sufficient  ven- 


Y 


28 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


tilation  by  running  a  small  (i^  or  2-inch)  vent  pipe 
through  the  roof  (Fig.  4).  In  a  few  cases  only  was 
the  extension  of  the  soil  pipe  of  the  full  size  of  the 
pipe. 

That  this  ventilating  extension  should  be  of  the 
same  material  of  which 
soil  pipes  are  made  is  a 
rule  which  was  formerly 
much  violated  by  skin 
plumbers.  Galvanized 
sheet  iron  or  tin  pipes 
were  frequently  run  from 
the  highest  water  closet 
upward  through  the  roof 
(Fig.  5),  the  joints  being 
imperfectly  closed  or  not 
made  at  all,  the  pipes 
being  simply  slipped  one 
into  another. 

Even  where  the  exten- 
sion of  the  soil  pipe  is  of 
proper  size  and  material, 
its  object  is  often  de- 
feated by  a  ventilating 
cap  or  a  return  bend 

(Fig.  6)  placed  on  top  of  the  mouth  of  pipe,  both  of 
which  greatly  impede  ventilation. 

All  these  attempts  at  establishing  an  air  current  are 
futile,  unless  a  second  opening  for  fresh  air  is  pro- 
vided at  the  foot  of  the  iron  soil  pipe.  With  two 


Fig.   5. — Defective  method  of  soil  pipe  ventila- 
tion by  sheet  metal  vent  extension  to  roof. 


DEFECTIVE   PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS. 


2Q 


openings  of  the  full  size  of  soil  pipe  (Fig.  7)  a  con- 
stant current  and  dilution  of  the  air  in  the  pipe,  and 
a  destruction  of  organic  matter  coating  the  inner  walls 
of  the  pipes  is  effected. 

It  is  now  recognized  as  a  mistake  to  place  any  ven- 
tilator over  the  mouth  of  soil  or  waste  pipes.  While 
some  cowls  may  act  very  efficiently  with  certain  di- 
rections of  the  wind,  experience  teaches  that  for  the 
usual  direction  of  the  wind  a  plain  open-mouthed 
tube  affords  the  greatest  upward 
movement  in  vertical  pipes. 

Carelessness  is  often  shown  in 
the  location  of  the  fresh  air  pipe 
as  well  as  of  the  soil  pipe  mouth. 
The  former  should  be  remote 
from  windows  and  from  the 
cold  air  box  of  the  heating  ap- 
paratus,  and  the  latter  not  too 
near  any  skylight,  air  shaft  or 
chimney  top.  Sewer  air  may  be  carried  down  a  chim- 
ney flue  and  enter  the  dwelling  through  fireplaces,  if 
proper  care  is  not  taken  to  locate  the  soil  pipe  mouth 
remote  from,  and  at  least  a  few  feet  below,  chimney 
tops  (Fig.  8)  ;  down  drafts  in  chimney  flues  or  venti- 
lating shafts  are  known  to  occur  at  times,  and  may  thus 
be  the  cause  of  annoying  gases  in  rooms.  Soil  pipes 
terminating  above  the  roof  should  not  be  close  to 
mansard  roof  windows  of  attic  bedrooms  (Fig.  9). 

Experience  has  also  clearly  demonstrated  the  need 
of  enlarging  the  extension  of  smaller  waste  pipes  to 


cap' 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


four  inches  diameter  (Fig.  10),  for  smaller  openings 
above  the  roof  become  frequently  obstructed  in  cold 
climates  by  hoar  frost,  and  thus  the  purpose  of  the 
pipe  extension  is  practically  annihilated.  Much 
trouble  has  also  been  experienced  in  the  past  by  vent 
pipes  becoming  choked 
with  rust  at  the  points 
where  offsets  were  re- 
quired. (See  Fig.  n.) 
it  is  necessary,  to  pre- 
vent this  occurrence,  to 
make  all  offsets  with  fit- 
tings under  an  angle  of 
at  least  45°  with  the  hori- 
zontal line.  (See  Fig. 

10.) 

A  common  mistake  of 
plumbers  and  builders 
was  to  make  the  soil  and 
waste  pipes  unnecessa- 
rily large.  Soil  pipes  of 
5  or  even  6  inches  diam- 
eter were,  and  are  still 
used,  where  a  4-inch  pipe 

Fig.  7.— Proper  method  of  ventilating  a  soil  pipe 

WOuld  be  ample    tO    Carry  byfull-size  extension  through  roof,  and  fresh 

"^  air  inlet  aj  foot  of  line. 

off  all   the  waste  water 

that  could  be  discharged  into  it.  Such  a  pipe 
has  proven  to  be  sufficient  for  dozens  of  water 
closets  on  the  same  or  on  different  floors.  In  my 
own  practice  I  seldom  use  a  soil  pipe  larger  than  four 


DEFECTIVE     PLUMBING    AND     SEWER    GAS. 


inches  diameter,  except  in  the  case  of  tenement  houses 

having  careless  tenants;  of  hospitals  for  insane,  where 

patients  are  inclined  to  be  mischievous,  and  in  the 

case  of  high  office  buildings.     Where  only  one  water 

closet  has  to  be  served  I  should  not  hesitate  to  use  a 

3-inch  pipe,  provided  I  could  rely  upon  a  judicious 

use  of  the  closet  and  upon  constant  use  of  the  now 

universal  toilet  paper,  and 

provided  also  the  traps  on  //), 

waste  pipes  connected  to 

the    3-inch    soil    pipe   are 

efficiently      protected 

against  siphonage.  Where 

vertical    waste   pipes   are 

required    to    receive    the 

water  from  sinks,    bowls 

and  tubs,  located  at  a  dis- 

tance from  the  soil  pipe, 

experience  has   proven  a 

2-inch      pipe     sufficiently 

large  ;  pipes  of  larger  size 

will    always    remain    im-  m 

perfectly     flushed,       and 

therefore  become,  in  time,  extremely  foul. 

The  effect  of  the  previously  mentioned  official 
supervision  of  plumbing  shows  itself  both  in  the  im- 
proved ventilation  and  in  the  material  and  jointing 
of  soil  and  waste  pipes. 

Lead  is  the  material  usually  employed  for  branch 
waste  pipes  connecting  fixtures  with  the  main  soil 


Figl  8<~Top  of 


32  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

pipe  system.  Lead  pipe  of  small  diameter  is  more 
easily  run  than  an  iron  pipe,  and  although  it  is  quite 
feasible  to  run  galvanized  wrought  iron  waste  pipes 
of  small  size  to  wash  basins,  tubs  or  sinks,  it  must  be 
conceded  that  lead  offers  certain  advantages,  espe- 
cially in  crooked  runs,  in  corners  and  under  floors. 
Foremost  among  the  advantages  should  be  mentioned 
the  fact  that  lead  pipe  requires  the  least  number  of 
joints.  For  more  than  one  reason,  however,  it  is  de- 


Fig.  9. — Soil  pipe  extension  on  roof  located  too  near  an  attic  window. 

sirable  that  supply  and  waste  pipes  in  concealed 
places  should  be  avoided,  for  it  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon occurrence  with  lead  waste  pipes  located  under 
the  floor,  to  have  nails  driven  by  the  carpenter's  care- 
less hand  into  the  upper  part  of  the  waste.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  fact  is  not  readily  disclosed  ;  the  hole, 
being  on  the  top,  may  not  leak  water,  but  it  will  leak 
sewer  air. 

Where  lead  waste  pipes  escape  such  a  rough  treat- 
ment from  carpenters,  they  are  subject  to  the  danger 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS. 


33 


of  being  gnawed  by  rats.  If  concealed  under  floors, 
waste  pipes  are  often  run  at  a  dead  level,  or  where 
proper  fall  has  been  given  to  them  at  the  time  the 
work  was  done,  a  subsequent  sagging  may  occur, 
owing  to  insufficient  support,  and  the  pipe,  in  conse- 
quence, becomes  double  trapped  or  air  bound.  Here, 
as  in  regard  to  plumbing 
fixtures,  the  rule  should 
be  observed  to  leave  the 
piping  as  much  as  pos- 
sible in  plain  sight  and 
open  to  inspection. 

Defective  joints  in  lead 
pipe  are  due  to  ignorance 
or  inefficiency  of  me- 
chanics. Lead  pipe 
should  always  be  con- 
nected with  "  wiped 
joints,"  which  technical 
expression  means  that 
the  joint  should  be  made 
with  solder  wfiped  in  a  Fig  I0  _Proper  method  of  making  offset  in  a  vent 

11  11  pipe  I     enlargement   of    pipes   smaller    than    4 

shapely      oval      lump      inches  below  roof. 
around  the  pipe.     Very 

often  the  back  part  of  such  joints  is  found  defective, 
the  solder  having  dropped  off.  Where  joints  are  out  of 
sight,  the  wiped  joint  is  usually  carelessly  made  and  un- 
evenly shaped  ;  but  ofteher  still  the  plumber  rests  sat- 
isfied with  making  a  "  cup  joint,"  which  is  not  as  strong" 
nor  workmanlike  in  appearance  as  the  wiped  joint. 


34 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


Where  lead  pipes  are  joined  to  hubs  of  cast  iron 
pipe  a  careless  workman  often  inserts  the  lead  pipe 
into  the  iron  hub,  filling  the  space  with  cement  or 
putty.  Such  joints  are  not  to  be  trusted,  as  putty  and 
cement  crumble  away  in  a  short  time,  thus  allowing 
the  escape  of  noxious  gases.  The  proper  way  to  make 
such  joints  is  to  use  a  tinned  brass  ferrule,  which  is 

inserted  into  the  cast  iron 
hub,  the  joint  being  thor- 
oughly caulked  as  in  the 
case  of  iron  pipes  ;  the 
lead  pipe  is  connected  to 
the  brass  ferrule  by  a 
wiped  joint.  Where  lead 
pipe  joins  a  wrought  iron 
or  brass  pipe,  the  connec- 
tion is  made  with  a  brass 
screw  nipple,  soldered 
to  the  lead  and  tightly 
screwed  with  red  lead 
into  the  iron  or  brass  fit- 
ting, which  is  tapped  to  the  standard  thread. 

A  radical  defect  exhibited  in  the  common  systems 
of  plumbing  is  the  use  of  waste  pipes  of  too  large 
calibre  for  the  office  which  they  have  to  perform.  A 
2-inch  lead  waste  pipe  for  a  single  wash  bowl*  which 
has  only  a  i£  inch  coupling  and  strainer,  and  a  3-inch 
waste  for  laundry  tubs  or  a  kitchen  sink,  cannot  pos- 
sibly remain  well  flushed,  but  will  soon  become 
coated  with  filth,  and  eventually  clog  up  entirely. 


Fig.  ii. — Wrong  method  of  offset  in  a  vent  line. 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  35 

For  an  ordinary  pressure  of  water  in  the  supply 
pipes  a  i^-inch  waste  for  a  bowl  is  ample  ;  a  2-inch 
pipe  empties  a  bath  tub  or  a  laundry  tray  as  quickly 
as  any  one  may  desire  ;  even  for  a  pantry  or  a  kitchen 
sink  anything  beyond  two  inches  is  a  positive  injury, 
for  larger  wastes  are  sure  to  choke  up  with  grease  in 
a  short  space  of  time.  Not  only  is  the  first  cost  of  the 
lead  piping  greater,  but  such  extravagant  sizes  lead 
to  stoppages  and  consequent  bills  for  repairs.  But 
even  in  these  enlightened  days  it  is  rare  to  find  house- 
owners  who  will  listen  to  disinterested  advice.  Most 
of  them  still  prefer  to  pay  the  price  for  the  larger  pipe 

in   order  to    be.  sure    that   their   waste   pipe  is  "  big 

• 
enough  to  pass  anything  coming  into  it." 

Another  mistake  frequently  made  is  to  use  for  such 
waste  pipes  traps  of  a  larger  diameter  than  the  pipe. 
Under  no  circumstances  whatever  should  any  trap  be 
of  larger  calibre  than  the  waste  pipe  ;  I  should  prefer 
reducing  the  size  of  the  trap  one-quarter  or  one-half 
inch,  in  order  to  increase  the  scouring  effect  of  the 
waste  water. 

The  cellar  is  commonly  the  most  neglected  and 
least  thought  of  part  of  a  dwelling,  yet  its  sanitary 
condition  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  well-being  of 
the  occupants  of  the  house.  I  think  I  am  not  mis- 
taken in  saying  that  from  the  condition  of  a  cellar 
one  may,  writh  tolerable  accuracy,  draw  conclusions 
in  regard  to  the  healthfulnessof  the  whole  house.  A 
cellar  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  for  much  of 
the  air  of  a  cellar  is  drawn  into  the  upper  rooms  of  a 


36  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

house,  particularly  in  winter  time,  when  stoves  and 
fireplaces  create  a  constant  suction  toward  the  rooms. 

Moreover,  where  hot-air  furnaces  are  placed  in  the 
cellar,  these  sometimes  draw  their  air  supply  directly 
from  the  cellar,  or,  where  a  cold  air  box  has  been  pro- 
vided, it  is  constructed  of  wood,  and  through  its 
cracks  the  tainted  atmosphere  of  the  cellar  enters,  to 
be  carried  in  a  heated  state  to  the  upper  floors  of  the 
dwelling. 

It  is  all-important  that  the  cellar  floor  should  be 
thoroughly  dry  and  water-tight ;  nothing  is  more  in- 
jurious to  health  than  ground-air,  which  is  often 
tainted  with  sewer  air  from  leakage  of  drains,  or  from 
cesspools,  located  under  the  cellar  of  a  house,  or  from 
heaps  of  garbage  and  refuse,  constituting  the  soil  upon 
which  many  of  our  habitations  are  being  constantly 
erected,  notwithstanding  the  earnest  protests  of  sani- 
tarians. 

A  cellar  should  be  well  lighted,  for  this  will  aid  in 
keeping  it  in  good  order  and  will  promote  cleanliness. 
Cellars  of  city  houses  should  never  be  used  for  the 
storage  of  large  quantities  of  vegetables  which  may 
decay,  nor  should  any  kind  of  rubbish  be  left  there 
to  decompose.  They  should  not  be  made  hiding 
places  for  old  rags,  worn-out  clothing,  tin  cans  ;  and, 
above  all,  the  darkest  corner,  or  the  place  under  the 
cellar  stairway,  should  never  be  chosen  for  a  servants' 
water  closet. 

Where  a  cellar  is  apt  to  be  damp  or  even  wet  at 
times,  adequate  drainage  must  be  provided.  Under 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  37 

no  circumstances  should  a  direct  connection  be  estab- 
lished between  the  cellar  or  the  sub-soil  under  the 
cellar  and  the  sewer,  for  by  doing  so  sewer  air  is  led 
into  the  house.  Reliance  cannot  be  placed  upon  the 
common  S-trap,  with  shallow  water  seal,  on  the  line 
of  the  cellar  drain  ;  it  is  too  often  rendered  useless  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  forming  the  seal.  Still 
worse  is  the  common  so-called  "cesspool  or  stench 
trap  "  for  cellar  floors,  provided  with  a  bell-trap  of 
improper  shape  and  insufficient  water  seal,  which 
is  often  rendered  ineffective  when  the  loose  strainer 
becomes  displaced  or  lost.  If  there  must  be  an  open- 
ing in  the  cellar  floor  to  remove  water  after  wash- 
ing the  cellar,  or  to  provide  for  an  unexpected 
leakage  of  water  into  the  cellar,  this  opening  should 
be  of  moderate  size  and  covered  with  a  strainer,  and 
the  branch  drain  leading  from  it  to  the  main  house 
drain  should  be  trapped  by  a  trap  with  very  deep 
seal,  not  liable  to  be  easily  lost  through  evaporation, 
and  the  drain  should  be  furthermore  protected  by  a 
gate  valve  which  can  be  closed.  Should,  however, 
the  sewer  in  the  street  be  subject  to  back-flooding 
from  the  tide  or  an  unusual  rise  of  a  river,  or  should 
its  size  be  insufficient  to  carry  off  heavy  rain  storms, 
the  cellar  would  be  in  constant  danger  of  being 
flooded  by  backwater  and  sewage,  in  which  case — 
upon  the  water  receding — deposits  of  foul  matters  are 
left  on  the  cellar  floor.  In  such  cases  I  strongly  ad- 
vise doing  away  with  the  opening  in  the  cellar  floor, 
or  else  I  insist  on  the  use  of  some  back  pressure  or 
tidal  valve  on  the  drain  outlet. 


38  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

In  most  houses  built  a  generation  ago  the  main 
drain  is  buried  below  the  floor,  in  inaccessible  loca- 
tions, its  position  being  often  quite  unknown.  Fol- 
lowing this,  glazed  earthen  or  cement  pipes  were 
used  for  house  drains,  while  the  drain  of  the  oldest 
buildings  was  usually  built  of  brick,  often  square  in 
shape,  much  too  large  in  size,  and  with  insufficient  or 
no  fall.  Sometimes  even  troughs  of  wood  were  used 
to  carry  off  waste  waters.  All  such  drains  are  sure 
to  accumulate  deposits  and  to  generate  disease-breed- 
ing gases  of  decay.  Brick  drains  under  houses  are 
generally  harboring  places  for  rats,  the  cement  of  the 
joints  crumbles  away,  bricks  loosen  and  fall  out,  and 
the  drains  become  leaky  or  partly  choked.  Some- 
times, in  examining  old  houses,  I  have  observed  that 
vitrified  pipes  had  been  laid  under  the  floor  to  take 
the  place  of  such  brick  drains,  the  latter  being  simply 
cut  off,,  but  left,  full  of  decomposing  filth,  under  the 
building.  Even  vitrified  pipes  of  proper  shape  should 
never  be  used  for  drains  under  a  dwelling  house  ;  they 
often  crack  through  settlement  and  have  leaky  joints, 
and  the  soil  under  cellars  becomes  saturated  with 
sewage.  It  is  impossible  properly  to  connect  an  up- 
right soil  or  waste  pipe  to  an  earthen  drain,  for  no 
matter  how  well  the  iron  pipe  may  be  cemented  into 
the  hub  of  the  terra  cotta  drain,  a  settlement  of  the 
soil  pipe  will  break  off  the  hub  ;  in  other  cases  the 
earthen  drain  settles  away  from  the  soil  pipe,  leaving 
an  opening  between  both,  through  which  all  sewage 
matter  is  discharged  into  the  ground  under  the  cellar. 


DEFECTIVE    PLUMBING    AND    SEWER    GAS.  39 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  completely  enumerate  all 
the  defects  which  are  found  in  old — and  even  in 
more  modern  work — in  the  plumbing"  of  city  and 
country  dwellings.  Some  of  the  graver  and  more 
common  faults  have  been  alluded  to.  Of  others  I 
mention  the  following  :  the  connection  of  drip  pipes 
to  the  soil  pipe  system  or  to  traps  ;  the  connection 
of  the  overflow  from  drinking  water  tanks  or  water 
closet  cisterns  to  soil  or  waste  pipes  ;  the  direct  con- 
nection of  refrigerator  wastes  to  any  part  of  the 
drainage  system  ;  the  running  of  local  vent  pipes 
from  closet  bowls  into  soil  pipes ;  the  running  of 
soil  or  waste  pipes  into  chimney  flues  ;  the  use  of 
rain  leaders  as  soil  and  waste  pipes  ;  the  use  of  soil 
pipes  as  rain  leaders ;  the  use  of  sheet  metal  rain 
leaders  as  ventilators  of  house  drains ;  untrapped 
leaders  opening  near  dormer  windows  ;  the  trapping- 
of  fixtures  at  a  distance  from  the  outlet  ;  the  use  of 
one  trap  for  a  number  of  fixtures  ;  the  double  trapping 
of  fixtures  ;  the  running  of  air  pipes  of  traps  into  ven- 
tilation flues  ;  the  connection  between  trap  vent  pipes 
and  local  vent  pipes  from  closet  bowls  ;  junctions 
between  vent  pipes  and  traps  made  on  the  wrong  side 
of  the  trap,  bye-passes,  etc. 

With  such  a  large  and  by  no  means  exhaustive  list 
of  possible  defects  in  the  plumbing-  of  a  house,  the  im- 
portance of  a  general  house  ventilation  cannot  be  too 
often  urged.  The  occupants  of  a  house  may  perhaps 
continue  to  enjoy  good  health  in  the  face  of  such 
dangerous  defects  if  ample  provision  has  been  made 


4O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

for  artificial  ventilation,  and  as  long  as  the  practice  is 
observed  of  allowing  a  current  of  pure  air  to  sweep 
daily  through  all  rooms  and  closets  in  the  dwelling. 
The  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  what 
has  been  said  above  are  two-fold,  namely  :  First,  that 
by  providing  a  dwelling  with  modern  conveniences, 
having  for  their  object  comfort,  cleanliness  and  pro- 
motion of  health  at  home,  we  also  create  the  danger 
of  air  pollution  in  dwellings,  and  that  although  it  is 
quite  possible  to  have  such  fixtures  well  and  safely 
arranged,  such  a  result  can  hardly  be  expected  from 
the  average  mechanic,  and  that  the  best  course  for  a 
house-owner  is  to  procure  professional  advice  at  an 
early  stage  of  house  building.  Second,  that  no  mat- 
ter how  well  the  system  may  have  been  planned,  con- 
ceived and  constructed,  it  needs  looking  after  from 
time  to  time,  the  same  as  any  other  engineering  struc- 
ture, and  just  here  let  me  remind  the  reader  of  the 
importance  of  having  on  permanent  record  the  loca- 
tion of  all  pipes,  fixtures,  traps,  hand  holes,  etc.,  inside 
a  dwelling,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  inspection  and 
repairs. 


II. 
TRAPS    AND   SYSTEMS   OF  TRAPPING. 


By  extending  soil  and  waste  pipes  at  least  the  full 
size  through  the  roof,  and  by  providing  an  inlet  for 
fresh  air  at  the  bottom  on  the  line  of  the  house  drain, 
a  circulation  of  air  through  the  waste  pipe  system  is 
established.  (See  Fig.  7.)  The  system  shown  in  the 
sketch  is,  however,  still  imperfect.  Although  it  was 
not  unusual  years  ago  to  find  waste  pipes  of  dwelling 
houses  thus  arranged,  some  further  provisions  are  re- 
quired to  render  the  system  complete.  No  amount 
of  ventilation  would  suffice  to  keep  the  air  pure  in 
houses  having  a  drainage  system  so  arranged.  Sewer 
air  would  penetrate  them  from  cellar  to  attic,  satu- 
rating bedding,  upholstery,  carpets,  furniture,  wall 
papers,  causing  loss  of  strength  and  health  of  the 
occupants,  and  frequently  breeding  disease,  or  even 
causing  death. 

The  reason  why  such  an  arrangement  of  the  pipes 
is  defective  is  obvious.  Whether  the  house  drain  de- 
livers into  a  cesspool  or  connects  with  a  sewer  in  the 
street,  an  escape  of  generally  foul  gases  into  the  house 
pipes  will  go  on.  But  in  addition  to  such  gases  from 
the  sewer  or  cesspool,  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  of 
every  house  contain  more  or  less  foul  air  (improperly 
called  "-sewer"  gas),  derived  from  decomposing 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


waste  matters  adhering  to  and  coating  the  inside  of 
the  waste  pipes.  With  the  arrangement  shown,  soil 
pipe  air,  as  well  as  air  from  the  cesspool  or  the  street 
sewer,  would  find  a  ready  outlet  through  the  branch 
waste  pipes  and  fixtures  into  the  rooms.  To  prevent 

this,  some  barrier  ought 
to  be  placed  on  the  waste 
pipes  and  drains,  which 
allows  the  foul  water  to 
run  off,  at  the  same  time 
making  it  impossible  for 
gases  to  return  through 
the  same  channels.  This 
is  what  is  commonly 
called  "  trapping  "a  drain 
or  a  waste  pipe,  and  the 
following  remarks  are 
chiefly  devoted  to  traps 
and  systems  of  trapping. 
The  simplest  form  of 
trap  is  a  bend  in  the  pipe 
retaining  sufficient  water 
to  "  form  a  seal."  While 

Fig.  12. — Soil  pipe  extended  full  size  ;   fresh  air 

vent ;  no  trap  on  main  drain,  but  each  fixture     CVCTy  LTclp  lo,   tO   d   Certain 

extent,  an  obstruction  to 

the  free  flow  of  water,  and  brings  with  it  the  danger  of 
occurrence  of  deposits  and  consequent  decomposition 
of  organic  waste  matter,  yet  in  a  system  of  house 
drainage  the  traps  are  necessary. 

First  in  importance  is  the  proper  trapping  of  each 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


43 


and  every  fixture  in  a  dwelling.  Each  water  closet, 
urinal,  slop  sink,  wash  bowl,  bath  tub,  sink  and  laundry 
tub  should  be  separately  trapped  as  near  to  the  fix- 
ture as  possible.  Improperly  trapped  or  untrapped 

fixtures  are  fully  as  much 
the  cause  of  bad  and  un- 
healthy odors  in  dwell- 
ings as  improper  and  de- 
fective joints  in  soil  pipes. 
If,  then,  \ve  put  a  trap 
under  each  and  every 
plumbing-  appliance 
(Fig.  12),  it  still  remains 
our  duty  to  prevent  any 
escape  of  foul  gases  from 
the  sewer  or  cesspool  into 
the  soil  and  waste  pipes, 
or  at  the  opening  A,  which 
is  intended  to  act  as-  an 
inlet  for  fresh  air.  Waste 
pipes  always  contain  more 
or  less  foul  air,  which  is 

Fig.  13.— House  drain  trapped  by  a  running  trap,    diluted     and      rendered      aS 
fresh  air  pipe   on   house  side  of   trap,  trap 

under  each  fixture,  soil  pipe  extended  full    ITlUCh      aS      pOSSlble      hartTl- 
size  above  the  roof. 

less    by  introducing  into 

the  pipes  a  constant  current  of  pure  air.  A  trap 
should,  therefore,  be  placed  on  the  line  of  the  house 
drain,  between  the  fresh  air  pipe  A  and  the  sewer  or 
cesspool.  (See  Fig.  13.)  The  opening  at  A  will  now 
almost  continually  act  as  an  inlet,  except  at  the 


44 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


moment  when  a  discharge  through  a  soil  pipe  occurs, 
at  which  time  the  current  may,  for  a  short  time,  be 
reversed.  As  long  as  such  inlet  is  judiciously  located, 
remote  from  windows  or  piazzas,  or  the  cold  air  box 
of  the  heating  apparatus,  an  occasional  downward 

current  through  the  soil 
pipe  is  unobjectionable. 
Much  diversity  of  opin- 
ion exists  in  regard  to  the 
necessity  of  trapping  the 
main  drain  and  the  fix- 
tures. There  are  experi- 
enced men  who  claim 
that  the  fresh  air  pipe  A 
and  the  trap  on  the  main 
drain  should  be  omitted, 
leaving  the  soil  pipe  to 
draw  its  supply  of  air 
for  circulation  from  the 
sewer  (Fig.  14).  I  do 
not  favor  this  system 
where  a  house  drain  dis- 
charges into  a  cesspool, 

Fig.  14. — Fixtures  trapped,  soil  pipe  extended  full  i    •     i  *1 

size  above  roof  ;  house  drain  left  untrapped    WhlCh      ttlUSt      nCCCSSarily 

and  without  fresh  air  inlet.  ,  1  f          1  7  j 

be  more  or  less  foul.     It 

would  be  equally  objectionable,  in  my  opinion,  wher- 
ever a  street  sewer  is  known  to  be  so  foul  as  to  con- 
stitute an  "  elongated  cesspool."  Only  in  cases  when 
pipes  are  well  jointed  and  fixtures  well  trapped,  does 
it  appear  admissible  to  have  well  constructed  and 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


45 


copiously  flushed  street  sewers  ventilated  through  the 
house  pipes.     Up  to   the  present  day  such  work,  as 
regards  both  the  drainage  arrangements  of  dwellings 
and  the  construction  of  sewers,  has  been  the   excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule. 
Where  a  house   drain 
of  a  single  house  empties 
into    a    river,   a  lake    or 
into  the  sea,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  house  to 
the  outlet    is    moderate, 
the    trap    on    the    main 
drain   may    be    omitted, 
always    supposing    the 
work  in  the  house  to  be 
done    in    the    most  ap- 
proved and  perfect  man- 
ner, to  be  thoroughly  in- 
spected   from    time-    to 
time,  and  the  drain  to  be 
of  proper  material,   laid 
with     ample     fall    and 
securely    and    tightly 
jointed.     Should  the  out- 
let be  located  so   as   to  be  closed  at  times  by  a  high 
tide  or  otherwise,  it  is  necessary  to  construct  a  fresh  air 
inlet  entering  the  drain  just  above  the  highest  possible 
water  level. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  my  decided  preference  is 
for    "  disconnection "  or    complete  isolation   of   each 


Fig.  15. — House  drain  trapped  by  a  disconnect- 
ing trap  ;  fixtures  in  the  house  left  untrapped ; 
soil  pipe  extended  full  size  above  roof. 


46 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


dwelling  from  the  cesspool  or  the  common  sewer. 
Mr.  Mansergh,  a  civil  engineer  of  large  experience, 
ably  discusses  this  question  as  follows  : 

I  would  detach  as  far  as  is  practicable  every  house  from  the  main 
sewer.  As  a  part  of  the  whole  sewerage  system,  every  single  house 
is  brought  more  or  less  closely  in  connection  with  every  other  house, 
and  by  this  means  evils  existing  in  some  houses  may  become  com- 
mon to  all.  The  more  perfectly  this  connection  can  be  severed  the 
better.  The  aim  in  all  cases  should  be  to  isolate  as  far  as  possible, 
but  at  all  events  to  cut  off  the  direct  communication  to  the  interior. 

It  has  also   been  proposed  to  leave  out  the  traps 
under  the    fixtures,   sometimes    substituting   for    the 
traps  a  downward   draft  through  the  fixtures  by  con- 
necting them  with  a  heated 
flue.    The  advocates  of  this 
system   (Fig.    15)   require, 
of  course,  the  trap  on  the 
main  drain  and  a  fresh  air 
pipe,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,    a    "  disconnecting 

Fig.  16. — House  drain  trap,  with  fresh  air        tf^T)   "          The        ObieCtion        tO 

inlet  opening.  ^ 

this   plan  lies   in    the    fact 

that  soil  and  waste  pipes  of  every  house  contain  more 
or  less  foul  air,  which  is  not  always  expelled  at  the 
top  of  the  soil  pipe,  but  will  enter  the  interior 
of  the  dwelling  through  untrapped  fixtures.  Even 
the  short  branches  from  fixtures  become,  in  time, 
coated  with  a  peculiar  slime,  emitting  unhealthy 
gases ;  this  is  true  in  particular  of  the  overflow 
pipes,  which  are  insufficiently  flushed  and  readily 
become  the  seat  of  fungoid  growth.  Noxious  gases 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  47 

may,  it  is  true,  be  withdrawn  by  connecting  branch 
waste  pipes  to  a  hot  flue.  But  the  danger  always 
remains  that,  at  times,  the  flue  may  cease  to  draw  ; 
for  instance  when  the  kitchen  fire  goes  out  over 
night,  or  in  the  case  of  a  steam  coil  placed  in  a  flue  to 
increase  the  draft,  the  steam  may  be  shut  off  from 
Saturday  afternoon  to  Monday  morning.  In  such 
instances,  what  is  to  prevent  the  foul  gases  from 
entering  through  the  fixtures  into  the  house  ?  More- 
over, it  is  found  difficult  to  establish  a  strong,  uni- 
form and  constant  downward  draft  through  a  multi- 
tude of  untrapped  plumbing  fixtures. 

Of  the  three  methods  of  arranging  the  waste  pipes 
of  a  dwelling,  as  shown  in  Figs.  13,  14  and  15,  the 
system  illustrated  in  Fig.  13; showing  a  trap  and  fresh 
air  inlet  on  the  main  drain,  and  a  trap  under  every 
fixture  in  the  house,  is  undoubtedly  the  safest,  and 
therefore  the  best. 

In  a  system  of  house  drainage  traps  are  necess'ary 
evils.  They  tend  to  retard  the  flow  of  water  through 
waste  pipes,  and,  unless  properly  shaped,  are  apt  to 
catch  hair,  lint,  chips  of  straw  or  wood  and  other  ar- 
ticles, and  retain  more  or  less  decomposing  matter. 
On  this  account,  and  also  wherever  the  water  in  the 
trap  is  not  changed  sufficiently  often,  they  become 
the  cause  of  annoying  odors.  I  will  briefly  consider 
the  shape  and  construction  of  traps  used  for  house 
drainage  purposes. 

To  all  traps  the  following  cardinal  principle,  so  well 
expressed  by  Mr.  Hellyer,  should  apply  : 


48  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

No  sanitary  fitting,  waste  pipe,  soil  pipe  or  drain  should  be 
trapped  in  a  way  that  will  not  admit  of  the  whole  of  the  water  in 
such  traps  being  entirely  changed  every  time  a  good  flush  of  water  is 
sent  into  them. 

Although  this  rule  is  applicable  to  all  kinds  of 
traps,  it  is  true  above  all  of  traps  under  urinals,  slop- 
sinks  and  water  closets.  These  fixtures  should,  there- 
fore, receive  a  liberal  flush  of  pure  water  from  a 
special  cistern  after  each  use.  With  kitchen  and 
pantry  sinks,  laundry  tubs,  bath  tubs  and  wash  basins, 
the  case  is  different.  The  usual  custom  is  to  empty 
these  fixtures  after  use,  without  giving  the  waste  pipe 
a  subsequent  flushing  with  clean  water.  The  last 
water  flowing  from  the  fixture  remains  in  the  trap. 
Be  this  waste  water  from  a  bowl,  a  laundry  tub,  a 
bath  or  a  sink,  it  is  always  more  or  less  fouled  water 
which  may  emit  noxious  gases  into  the  room,  this 
depending,  to  a  certain  extent,  upon  the  length  of 
time  during  which  the  fixture  remains  unused.  From 
this  it  is  quite  apparent  that  a  judicious  use  of  plumb- 
ing fixtures  is  all-important  in  order  to  prevent  the 
traps  from  becoming  a  serious  evil. 

When  washing  is  done,  the  house-maid  should  ap- 
ply a  thorough  cleaning  to  all  the  tubs,  and  follow 
this  with  a  few  quarts  of  clean  water  from  the  faucet 
into  each  tub  and  its  trap.  The  same  advice  may  be 
given  with  reference  to  the  use  of  wash  basins,  bath 
tubs,  etc.  Domestic  cleanliness  and  the  proper  care 
of  plumbing  fixtures  have  much  to  do  with  the  pre- 
vention of  bad  air  in  dwellings,  but  it  would  lead  me 
too  far  to  offer  here  more  than  these  few  pertinent 
remarks. 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  49 

Traps  for  fixtures  as  well  as  for  drain  pipes  ought 
to  be  so  shaped  as  to  be  self-cleansing.  A  common 
pipe  bent  in  the  shape  of  an  S,  and  therefore  called 
S-trap,  of  the  same  bore  as  the  waste  pipe,  meets  this 
requirement  perhaps  more  than  any  other  kind. 

In  considering  the  various  traps  in  use  it  will  be 
well  to  group  them  into  the  following  classes  : 

1.  Traps  for  house  drains. 

2.  Water  closet  traps. 

3.  Traps  for  sinks,  bowls  and  tubs. 

The  earliest  traps  placed  on  house  drains  to  separate 
the  house  from  cesspools  or  sewers  were  flap  valves, 
but  it  was  soon  recognized  that  even  the  lightest  flaps 
would  tend  to  detain  coarse  waste  matters  and  cause 
obstructions  in  the  house  drain.  Moreover,  none  of 
the  flap  valves  for  drains  form  a  permanently  air-tight 
seal  against  gases  of  decomposition. 

An  equally  objectionable  form  of  trap  is  the  "  cess- 
pool trap,"  or  "  mason's  trap,"  so  commonly  found  in 
old  city  residences  and  country  mansions,  and  inva- 
riably filled — often  choked — with  the  worst  kind  of 
putrescent  matter.  The  traps  now  used  for  house 
drains  have  the  siphon  shape  (Fig.  16),  and  are  gen- 
erally provided  with  an  inlet  for  fresh  air  on  the  house 
side  of  the  water  seal.  Such  traps  are  made  in  cast 
iron  and  also  in  earthenware,  and  are  placed  near  the 
front  wall  in  the  cellar,  or  else  outside  of  the  house, 
in  which  case  proper  precautions  should  be  taken  to 
protect  the  trap  from  freezing  and  to  make  it  access- 
ible for  inspection  and  for  cleaning  purposes. 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 


I7 — Trap  on  house  drain  located  in  a 
manhole  with  open  cover. 


Earthen  traps  are  glazed  so   as  to  present  a  smooth 

surface,  and  iron  traps  are  coated  with  the   black  or 

the  white  porcelain  enamel. 

In  some  house  drain  traps  the  fresh  air  inlet  on  the 

house  side  of  the  water 
seal  is  combined  with  the 
trap  in  one  piece.  When 
the  inlet  is  enlarged  to  an 
air-chamber  (see  Fig.  15) 
the  trap  is  generally 
called  a  "  disconnecting 
trap."  Most  of  these  are 

of   English  make  and  used   extensively  in   England, 

while  only  the  simpler  forms  of  drain  traps  are  used 

in  the  United  States. 
A  double   trap  on    the 

line    of    the    main    drain 

should  not  be  used  except 

where  there  is  apt  to  be 

excessive    pressure    from 

the   sewer.     If  it  is  used, 

a    vent    pipe    should    be 

placed  between    the  first 

and     second     trap,     and 

carried  up  to  the  roof. 

The  drain  trap  is  sometimes  located  outside  of  the 

house  in  a  manhole,    with  open  cover  serving   as  a 

fresh  air  inlet  (Fig.  17),  or  else  the  manhole,  if  near 

windows,  has  a  closed   cover  and  a  fresh  air  pipe  is 

carried  from  near  the  top  of  the  manhole  to  a  suitable 

distance  (Fig.  18). 


Fig.  18. — Trap  on  house  drain  located  in 
manhole  with  tight  cover. 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  51 

Tidal  valves  are  useful  for  the  protection  of  prop- 
erty below  the  level  of  high  tides,  and  also  where 
there  is,  at  times,  a  back  pressure  from  the  sewer,  in 
case  of  heavy  rainfalls.  It  must  not  be  forgotten, 
though,  that  in  using  such  valves  the  lower  or  outlet 
part  of  the  house  drain  must  be  increased  to  a  capac- 
ity equal  to  the  amount  of  sewage  discharged  from 
the  house  during  such  period  of  high  tide,  otherwise 
a  backing  up  of  sewage  into  the  cellar  and  through 
basement  fixtures  may  occur. 

Traps  for  Water  Closets. 

The  trap  formerly  used  for  water  closets  was  the 
well  known  D-trap.  It  presented  inviting  recesses 
for  the  accumulation  of  grease  and  filth,  and  for  this 
reason  it  should  never  be  tolerated  in  a  house  which 
makes  any  pretense  to  be  in  a  sanitary  condition. 
The  fact  of  its  having  a  large  cleaning  screw  does  not 
make  it  any  more  acceptable,  for  such  a  screw*  is 
inconveniently  located,  below  the  floor  and  out  of 
sight. 

Water  closet  traps  should  not  have  too  large  a  dip 
or  seal,  for  otherwise  it  is  difficult  to  drive  paper  and 
solids  out  into  the  soil  pipe.  The  less  quantity  of 
water  such  a  trap  holds,  with  the  same  depth  of 
water  seal,  the  better  will  it  be,  for  it  will  then  be 
possible  to  change  its  contents  entirely  at  each  flush. 

No  mechanical  trap  has  as  yet  been  devised  which 
answers  for  use  under  water  closets  ;  the  water-seal 
traps  are  the  only  ones  to  be  relied  upon  ;  flap-valves 


52  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

or  ball-valves,  in  connection  with  water  closet  traps, 
are  sure  to  get  out  of  order  after  some  use. 

The  best  traps  for  use  under  water  closets  are  the  S, 
three-quarter  S  and  P  traps,  made  either  of  lead,  iron 
or  earthenware.  The  last  named  kind  are  preferable 
to  any  other  on  account  of  their  cleanliness,  but  an  iron 
trap  may  have  its  inside  surface  smoothed  by  enam- 
eling the  trap.  The  drawn  lead  traps,  knowrn  as 
"  Du  Bois  "  traps,  are  smooth  on  their  inside,  and  are 
decidedly  superior  to  hand-made  lead  traps,  which, 
after  years,  are  liable  to  show  defects  at  the  seams,  or 
to  cast  lead  traps,  which  often  have  sandholes  and 
other  defects. 

Earthen  or  porcelain  traps  for  water  closets  are 
always  set  above  the  floor,  iron  traps  are  placed  above 
as  well  as  below  the  floor,  while  lead  traps  are  set 
below  the  floor,  between  the  joists.  Since  as  little 
plumbing  as  possible  should  be  hidden  from  view,  it 
is  in  most  cases  preferable  to  have  the  trap  in  plain 
sight  and  easy  of  access.  Should  the  water  closet 
apparatus  selected  require  a  trap  below  the  floor,  it  is 
much  better  to  use  an  iron  enameled  trap,  for  a  lead 
trap  may  have  nails  driven  in  at  the  top  by  careless 
carpenters,  or  it'  may  get  displaced  or  sag  by  reason 
of  its  weight. 

Speaking  of  water  closet  traps,  I  must  not  forget  to 
call  attention  to  an  unsatisfactory  manner  of  trapping 
certain  forms  of  mechanical  water  closets,  by  omitting 
the  water-seal  trap  and  relying  for  a  barrier  against 
gases  solely  upon  the  water  in  the  closet  bowl,  held  in 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  53 

place  by  a  tight-fitting  plunger  or  plug,  a  flap  valve,  a 
slide  valve  or  other  mechanism.  These  arrangements 
are  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  the  water  will  then  run 
out  of  the  closet  bowl  and  drain  air  easily  find  its  way 
into  the  house,  for  a  constant  down  draft  from  the 
closet  into  the  soil  pipe  cannot  be  depended  upon. 
Traps  for  Sinks,  Bowls,  Tubs,  etc. 

To  choose  a  proper  trap  for  use  under  a  tub,  sink  or 
bowl  is  a  rather  difficult  problem,  requiring  sound 
judgment,  skill  and  large  experience.  Each  of  the 
numerous  patented  trap  devices  in  the  market  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  its  inventor,  the  only  safe  and  reliable 
one  to  use,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  expressed,  "  the  only 
positive  cure  against  sewer  gas."  Many  of  the  pat- 
ented devices  will,  upon  examination,  be  found  to 
possess  certain  merits,  which,  however,  are  generally 
counterbalanced  by  one  or  more  drawbacks.  For 
instance,  one  trap  may  be  self-cleansing,  but  extremely 
liable  to  lose  its  water  seal,  while  another  trap  may  be 
safe  against  siphonage  or  back  pressure,  but  liable  to 
accumulate  grease  and  filth.  One  trap  may  answer 
under  certain  conditions  and  in  a  certain  locality, 
while  in  another  position  another  trap  might  be  pref- 
erable. 

There  are  bell  traps  of  various  descriptions,  D-traps, 
dip  traps,  bottle  or  pot  traps,  and  various  kinds  of 
S-traps.  All  of  these  have  as  a  barrier  against  gases 
a  water  seal  of  more  or  less  depth.  There  are  other 
traps  which  have  not  only  such  a  seal  by  water,  but 
also  a  mechanical  appliance  to  shut  off  gases,  such  as 


54  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

floating-  balls  of  rubber  or  metal  ;  heavy  self-seating 
valves,  either  rubber  or  metal  balls,  or  else  a  conical- 
shaped  valve  to  exclude  sewer  air.  There  are  also 
traps  provided  with  flap  valves,  opening-  with  the  cur- 
rent of  water  and  shutting  against  back  pressure  from 
the  soil  pipe.  Other  traps  have,  in  addition  to  the 
water  seal,  a  seal  of  mercury.  Finally,  a  large  num- 
ber of  traps  and  trap  attachments  have  been  invented, 
the  construction  of  which  is  such  as  to  render  siphon- 
age  impossible,  or  at  least  very  difficult. 

Many  traps  of  each  of  the  above  groups,  though 
sold  under  different  names,  are  identical  in  principle 
and  practically  the  same  in  construction,  so  that  it 
often  has  been  a  matter  of  wonder  to  the  author 
to  understand  how  they  all  could  have  been  patented 
as  a  "  new  and  original  invention." 

For  sinks,  no  trap  has  been  used  as  extensively  as 
the  bell  trap,  although  probably  no  other  trap  offers 
so  little  security  against  sewer  gas.  It  is  not  self- 
cleansing,  has  far  too  little  water  seal  to  resist  siphon- 
age,  back  pressure  and  evaporation  ;  it  gets  readily 
choked,  and  is  rendered  useless  when  servants  re- 
move the  top  strainer,  thus  doing  away  with  what  lit- 
tle seal  the  trap  possesses. 

Of  lead  siphon  traps,  the  "  Du  Bois  "  drawn  traps, 
made  by  hydraulic  pressure  in  the  same  manner  as 
lead  pipe,  possess  great  advantages  over  those  cast  in 
moulds  or  those  made  with  seams  by  hand. 

Such  lead  traps  are  made  of  various  weights  ;  none 
but  the  extra  heavy  traps,  equivalent  in  weight  to  the 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  55 

heaviest  lead  waste  pipe,  should  be  used  in  good 
plumbing. 

Another  group  of  traps  for  sinks,  bowls  or  tubs  are 
the  bottle  traps,  the  general  shape  of  the  trap  being 
somewhat  like  a  bottle,  with  an  inlet  pipe  in  the  cen- 
tre and  an  outlet  pipe  on  the  circumference  of  the 
bottle.  The  round  or  drum  trap,  which  is  used  ex- 
tensively in  Boston  plumbing  work,  has  a  flat  bot- 
tom and  soon  accumulates  deposits.  It  may  be  some- 
what improved  by  rounding  off  the  bottom.  Bottle 
traps  are  often  safe  against  siphonage  where  an 
S-trap  would  lose  its  water  seal,  but  they  are  not  self- 
cleansing  ;  an  ordinary  discharge  from  a  sink  or  bowl 
will  not  entirely  change  the  water  and  contents  of 
the  trap,  and  after  collecting  filth  the  bottle  trap  is 
not  safer  against  siphonage  than  the  S-trap. 

In  the  mechanical  traps  the  additional  seal  by  a 
valve,  ball  or  flap,  is  intended  to  give  increased  secur- 
ity in  case  of  back  pressure  and  in  case  of  evap.ora- 
tion  of  the  water  in  the  trap.  Should  the  water  be 
removed  by  siphonage  they  still  have  a  seal,  which, 
with  the  gravity  valves,  depends  upon  the  accuracy 
with  which  the  seat  is  turned.  In  the  case  of  traps 
with  a  floating  ball,  the  seal  is  preserved  only  so  long 
as  the  water  is  not  lowered  enough  to  drop  the  ball 
from  the  mouth  of  the  inlet  pipe. 

Among  mechanical  traps  I  mention  the  Bower  trap, 
shown  in  Fig.  19.  Its  construction  and  action  has 
been  thus  described  : 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


The  invention  consists  in  providing  a  sewer  gas  trap  with  a  float- 
ing valve  which  will  permit  the  flow  of  water  and  gases  carried  with 
the  water  in  one  direction,  and  prevent  their  regurgitation.  The  in- 
let pipe  of  the  trap  extends  downward  into  a  chamber,  which  is  of 
somewhat  larger  dimensions.  The  outlet  pipe  is  arranged  so  that  its 
discharge  opening  is  relatively  such  to  the  lower  end  of  the  inlet  pipe 
that  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  trap  is  always  a  considerable  dis- 
tance above  the  opening  of  the  inlet  pipe,  and  the  trap  is  ordinarily 
sealed  by  water.  A  float  ball  or  valve  (preferably  a  hollow  ball  of 
rubber)  is  placed  in  the  trap  beneath  the  end  of  the  inlet  pipe,  and 
this  valve  is  constantly  immersed  in  the  liquid — the  dimensions  of 
the  trap  being  such  that  the  ball  cannot  escape  upwards  alongside  of 
the  inlet  pipe. 

The  advantages  which  this  trap  possesses  are  the 
following- :     Its  seal  is  not  broken  by  evaporation,  nor 


Fig.  19.— View  of  Bower's  Trap.  Fig.  20.— Waring's  Sewer  Gas  Check  Valve. 

by  back  pressure  ;  it  affords  a  seal  against  absorbed 
gases  and  against  back  water ;  the  cup  is  removable, 
giving  access  to  all  parts  of  the  trap  ;  it  may  be  fitted 
with  glass  cup,  exposing  the  rubber  ball  and  the  water 
seal  ;  freezing  will  rarely,  if  ever,  injure  the  trap,  as 
the  hollow  rubber  ball  may  be  sufficiently  compressed 
to  allow  for  expansion  ;  the  screw-joint  between  cup 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


57 


and  body  of  the  trap  is  below  the  water  line,  conse- 
quently there  can  be  no  leakage  of  sewer  air  at  this 
point. 

The  chief  objection  to  the  Bower  trap  is  its  liability 
to  become  filthy  in  the  upper  corners.  It  is  true  that 
the  ball-valve  is  cleaned  at  each  discharge  by  being 
made  to  revolve  in  the  chamber,  the  ball-valve  pro- 
ducing an  eddy  which  assists  in  scouring  the  bottom 
of  the  trap.  But  the  upper  corners  do  not  get  any 

benefit  from  this  scour,  and  if 
used  under  sinks,  grease  will  col- 
lect in  the  trap. 

One  of  the  earlier  gravity 
valve  traps  is  Waring's  sewer 
gas  check  valve  (Fig.  20).  The 
rig.  2i -cudeii  Trap.  objection  to  this,  as  well  as  to 
other  gravity  valves,  is  that  they  catch  hair,  lint,  etc., 
especially  at  the  valve  seat.  The  valve  will  then 
shut  imperfectly  and  render  the  mechanical  seal  use- 
less. For  this  reason  the  inventor  himself  has  aban- 
doned the  use  of  this  trap,  except  for  waste  pipes 
through  which  only  clean  water  flows,  for  instance, 
for  overflows  from  tanks. 

A  round  ball  of  heavy  rubber  or  metal  is  more  apt 
to  keep  itself  and  the  valve  seat  clean  by  revolving. 
Such  a  valve  is  used  in  the  well-known  Cudell  sewer 
gas  trap,  illustrated  in  Fig.  21.  In  case  of  siphonage 
or  evaporation,  it  is  claimed  that  the  heavy  ball  will 
keep  out  sewer  air  by  the  downward  pressure  on  its 
seat.  The  trap  is  provided  on  lop  of  the  chamber 


58  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

with  a  removable  cover  for  cleaning  purposes.  The 
danger  with  a  cover  arranged  in  this  manner  consists 
in  its  being  on  the  sewer  side  of  both  the  water  and 
mechanical  seal.  Any  imperfection  in  the  joint  would 
render  the  double  seal  perfectly  useless.  The  shape 
of  the  Cudell  trap,  which  forms  corners  and  recesses 
between  the  inner  chamber  and  the  outer  walls  of  the 
trap  where  grease  and  filth  may  lodge,  is  objection- 
able. 

There  are  other  mechanical  traps  with  flap  valves, 
but  they  are  not  reliable,  for  if  any  foreign  matter 
lodges  on  the  seat  the  flap  will  not  close  tightly. 

Trap  attachments  have  been  devised  with  the  spe- 
cial object  of  preventing  the  siphoning  out  of  the 
water  in  the  trap. 

To  these  belong  the  Morey  trap  attachment.  "  It 
is  soldered  on  traps  already  in  use  at  the  highest  part 
of  the  bend.  Any  tendency  of  the  water  passing 
through  the  discharge  pipe  to  create  a  vacuum  causes 
the  valve  to  lift,  and  the  air  rushes  into  the  pipe,  de- 
stroying the  vacuum  and  preventing  the  trap  being 
drawn  dry.  The  suction  ceasing,  the  valve  drops  by 
gravity  into  its  seat,  forming  an  air-tight  joint,  and 
preventing  the  escape  of  noxious  vapors."  A  some- 
what similar  device  is  the  McClelland  anti-siphon  vent 
attachment,  which  has  a  mercury  sealed  cup. 

Of  non-siphoning  traps  I  mention  the  well-known 
"  Sanitas"  trap,  the  "  Puro  "  and  "  Hydric  "  traps,  and 
the  "  Ideal  "  trap. 

The  well-known  "  Sanitas  "  non-siphoning  trap,  il- 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


59 


lustrated  in  elevation,  and  also  with  the  cup  removed 
to  show  the  interior  partition  of  the  trap,  in  Fig.  22, 
is  the  invention  of  Mr.  J.  P.  Putnam,  an  architect  of 
Boston.  Being  convinced  that  there  were  more  dis- 
advantages than  advantages  in  trap  ventilation,  he 
set  about  to  study  by  numerous  careful  experiments 
the  action  of  fluids  in  traps  when  subjected  to  siphon- 
ing action.  He  also  endeavored  to  ascertain  if  it  was 
possible  to  construct  a  trap  in  such  a  manner  and  of 


Fig.  22. — Sanitas  Trap. 

such  form  as  to  render  it  anti-siphonic,  while  at  the 
same  time  being  self-cleaning. 

The  outcome  of  his  investigations  was  the  device 
known  as  the  "  Sanitas  "  trap,  developed  by  several 
successive  steps  from  the  ordinary  pot  or  round  trap, 
which  is  not  readily  siphoned  out.  The  chief  feature 
of  the  trap  which  renders  it  non-siphonic  is  the  de- 
flecting partition,  which  allows  air  to  pass  above  the 
water,  but  throws  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  back 
into  the  body  of  the  trap  to  form  a  permanent  water 
seal. 

Numerous  practical  tests  have  demonstrated  that 


6o 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


the  claim  of  the  inventor  is  sustained.  A  point  of 
importance,  however,  and  one  which  is  less  thoroughly 
understood,  is,  that  this  trap  is  only  self-scouring-  when 
used  under  plumbing  fixtures  having  very  large  out- 
lets and  a  quick  discharge.  The  trap  contains  a  suffi- 
cient body  of  water  to  resist  any  back  pressure,  and, 
being  unvented,  it  resists  evaporation  for  a  long  period 
of  time.  The  trap  is  also  so  shaped  that  the  seal  can- 
not be  destroyed  by  capillary  attraction,  as  it  has  a 

water  seal  over  three 
inches  in  depth,  which  is 
found  by  experiments  to 
be  the  limit  of  height  to 
which  substances  like 
hair,  lint,  twine  or  the 
like  will  carry  the  water 
above  the  normal  level 

Fig.  23-Puro  Trap.  Jn    ^    ^^ 

The  "  Puro  "  trap,  shown  in  Fig.  23,  was  designed 
and  put  on  the  market  by  George  F.  Brown,  of  Phil- 
adelphia, the  aim  of  his  invention  being  to  construct 
a  trap  proof  against  siphonage  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions. 

The  body  of  this  trap  has  an  enlargement  or  water 
chamber  forming  a  part  of  the  trap  and  a  partition 
which  divides  the  water  as  it  flows  through  the  trap. 
When  a  fixture  is  discharged  which  has  its  waste-pipe 
trapped  by  this  device,  a  part  of  the  water  flows 
through  the  passage,  which  is  practically  a  pipe  of  the 
same  .diameter  as  the  trap  inlet  pipe,  and  strikes  a 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


6r 


deflecting  curve  at  the  crown  of  the  trap.  It  is 
thereby  thrown  back  into  the  receiver  or  water 
chamber  and  forms  a  seal  when  siphonage  has  taken 
place.  The  walls  of  the  trap  are  smooth  and  have  no 
corners  for  the  lodgment  of  dirt.  The  water  passes 
through  it  with  a  scouring  action  which  keeps  the 
trap  clean.  A  cleanout,  however,  is  provided  in  the 
bottom  of  the  body  of  the  trap. 

The   "  Hydric  ''   non-siphoning    trap,  made  by  the 


Fig.  24.— Hydric  Trap. 

Hydraulic  Specialty  Company,  of  Philadelphia,  is  illus- 
trated in  elevation  and  section  in  Fig.  24.  The  sec- 
tion of  the  trap  shows  that  it  has  no  interior  mechan- 
ism or  partition  of  any  kind  to  obstruct  the  free  flow 
of  water  and  prevent  the  scouring  of  the  trap.  It  is 
claimed  that  this  trap  is  non-siphoning  and  retains  its 
seal  at  all  times,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  self- 
cleansing.  As  shown  in  the  section  of  the  trap,  the 
crown,  or  upper  portion  of  the  body  of  the  trap,  is  used 
as  a  deflecting  surface  for  throwing  back  the  water 


62 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


during  siphoning  action  while  the  air  escapes.  Suffi- 
cient water  is  thus  thrown  back  to  always  maintain 
an  ample  water  seal.  A  special  form  of  this  trap,  with 
clean-out  screw  on  the  house  side 
of  the  trap,  is  made  for  use  with 
bath  tubs. 

The  water  in  the  "  Ideal"  trap 
(Fig.  25)  is  described  as  revolving 
centrifugally  in  its  passage 
through  the  body  of  the  trap. 
The  inlet  to  the  trap  is  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  on  one  side  or  in  a 
tangential  line.  This  starts  the 
water  in  a  strong  circular  course, 
which  is  maintained  throughout 
the  flow.  The  trap  has  no  parti- 
tions or  other  obstructions  to  a 
free  waterway.  It  is  claimed  to 
be  non-siphoning.  A  cleaning 
screw  is  provided  at  the  bottom 
of  the  body  of  the  trap.  The 
i^-inch  trap  has  a  3-inch  depth 
of  water  seal. 

Of  all  traps  mentioned  the 
simple  S-trap  is  the  best  as  re- 
Fig.  25._ideai  Trap.  gards  self-cleaning  qualities. 
Experiments  with  such  traps,  however,  have  proven 
that  they  may  become,  in  certain  cases,  unsafe  and 
lose  their  trap  seal,  through  one  or  the  other  of  the 
following  causes  : 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  63 

1.  Traps  may  be  forced  by  back  pressure. 

2.  They  may  lose  their  water  seal  when  the  fixture 
to  which  they  are  attached  is  discharged  by  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  water  rushing  suddenly  through  the 
trap. 

3.  Traps  may  be  either  completely  siphoned  or  their 
water  level  lowered  below  the  dip  in  the  trap  by  a 
flow  from  another  fixture  on  the  same  branch  pipe. 

4.  Traps  under  fixtures  may  be  siphoned  by  a  sud- 
den flow  through  the  main  soil  pipe,  to  which  these 
fixtures  are  connected  by  branch  wastes. 

5.  If  fixtures  remain  unused  for  any  length  of  time 
the  water  of  the  trap  may  evaporate  so  much  as  to 
destroy  the  seal. 

6.  With  traps  on  dead  ends  of  pipes,  or  with  unven- 
tilated  soil  and  waste  pipes,  there  is  danger  of  the 
water  in  the  trap  absorbing  soil-pipe  air  and  giving 
same  off  on  the  house  side  of  the  trap.     Even  germs  of 
disease,  although  not  transmitted  through  water  with- 
out motion,  are  said  by  scientific  investigators  to  be 
liberated  from  the  water  if  the  latter  is  violently  agi- 
tated, as,  for  instance,  with  traps  under  fixtures,  when 
a  discharge  through  such  fittings  occurs. 

These  statements  are  also  more  or  less  true  of  other 
traps,  such  as  bell-traps,  bottle-traps,  D-traps,  etc. 
It  was  on  account  of  these  objections,  chiefly,  that  the 
mechanical,  and  more  recently  the  non-siphoning, 
traps  were  invented.  It  was  found  that  the  danger 
from  siphonage  could  be  greatly  lessened,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  by  emptying  each  branch  waste  pipe 


64 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


Fig.  26. — S-trap  with  vent  p 
at  crown  of  trap. 


independently  into  the  main  soil  or  waste  pipe.     This, 
however,  cannot  always  be  carried  out  in  the  construe- 
£  tion  of  the  plumbing  of  buildings, 

nor  is  it,  where  it  can  be  done,  in 
all  cases  a  protection  against  loss 
of  water  seal.     Siphonage  of  traps 
can,  in  many  cases,  be  prevented 
^e  by  attaching  a  vent   pipe  of  suit- 
able diameter  to  the  crown  of  the 
trap,  leading  its  open  end  to  the  outer  air  (see  Fig.  26). 

Such  a  vent  pipe  ren- 
ders traps  of  any  kind 
practically  safe  against 
siphonage,  provided  its 
size  is  such  as  not  to  offer 
too  much  frictional  resist- 
ance to  the  air  passing 
through  it  to  break  the 
suction.  It  is  quite  ap- 
parent that  the  diameter 
of  the  air  pipe  must  be 
increased  in  proportion  to 
its  length,  or  to  the  height 
of  the  building.  This  point 
is  quite  important  and 
does  not  seem  until  quite 
recently  to  have  been 

Fig-  27. — Stack  of  air  pipe  for  a  number 

generally  understood.  of  s-traps. 

The  vent  pipe  also  renders  traps  of  any  kind  safe 
against  back  pressure   and  absorption   of  gases,  and 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  65 

prevents  stagnation  of  foul  air  in  any  part  of  the  waste 
pipe  system. 

In  arranging  such  air  pipes  it  is  not  necessary  that 
each  fixture  trap  should  have  an  independent  vent  to 
the  roof,  but  several  branch  vent  pipes  may  be  con- 
nected into  a  main  air  pipe  of  larger  size,  and  this 
may  run  along  the  soil  pipe  and  may  branch  into  it 
above  the  highest  fixture,  or  else  it  may  extend  above 


\f 

Fig.  28. — Branch  vent  from  fixture  entering  the  vertical  vent  pipe  too  low  ;  correct 
position  indicated  in  dotted  lines. 

thereof  independently  (see  Fig.  27).  The  vertical  line 
of  vent  pipe  should  also  be  "  dripped  "  at  the  bottom,  by 
connecting  the  same,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  7,  by  a  Y-branch 
with  the  adjoining  soil  or  waste  line.  This  is  done  to 
avoid  any  rust  accumulation  at  the  foot  of  the  vent 
line.  In  setting  the  T-branches  for  the  fixture  vent 
pipes,  care  should  be  taken  to  set  the  outlet  at  a  height 
above  the  overflow  point  of  the  fixtures  (see  Fig.  28). 


66 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


This  avoids  the  possibility  of  the  vent  pipe  becoming 
a  waste  in  case  of  stoppage  of  the  main  waste  line. 
The  dotted  lines  show  the  correct  position  and  height 
of  the  branch  vent  pipe.  Branch  vent  pipes  should 
never  be  bowed  down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29.  Where 
the  air  pipe  is  thus  run  it  is  less  efficient  in  action, 
and  the  same  danger  as  shown  in  Fig.  28  exists  of  the 


Fig.  29. — Imperfect  arrangement  of  branch  vent  pipe  by  "  bowing  "  down. 

vent  becoming  a  waste  in  case  the  latter   becomes 
completely  choked  up. 

Admitting  that  "  back  air"  or  vent  pipes  render 
S-traps  practically  safe  against  most  of  the  above-made 
objections,  it  is  also  true  that  they  largely  increase 
the  cost  of  plumbing  work,  especially  so  where  the 
fixtures  are  not  located  in  vertical  groups.  They 
complicate  the  work,  are  difficult  to  run  in  old  build- 
ings, and  must  be  largely  increased,  in  the  case  of 
high  buildings,  toward  the  upper  floors.  In  the 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


application  of  trap  vent  pipes  bye-passes  are  fre- 
quently made  by  ignorant  or  careless  workmen, 
whereby,  although  each  fixture  is  trapped,  an  opening 
is  inadvertently  created  through  which  sewer  air  may 
enter  at  the  fixture.  Such  a  bye-pass  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  30.  In  this  case  the  trapping  of 
the  bath  waste  is  rendered  ineffective 
by  a  wrong  connection  of  the  basin 
waste  pipe.  The  arrows  in  the  illus- 
tration indicate  the  course  which 
I  sewer  air  would  take.  Trap  vent 
pipes  also  increase  the  evaporation 


Fig.  30.— Objectionable  bye-pass  arrangement  on  vent  pipes. 

of  water  in  traps  and  therefore  aggra- 
vate the  danger  from  sewer  air  enter- 
ing through  fixtures  in  cases  where 
these  remain  unused  for  a  long  time.  Vent  pipes 
stop  up  in  time  at  the  crown  of  the  trap  with  splash- 
ings  from  soapsuds  and  then  cease  to  furnish  air  to 
break  the  vacuum.  This  fact  would  not  announce 
or  show  itself  nor  is  it  easily  detected. 

The  literature  on  this  subject  includes  numerous, 
careful  and  valuable  experiments  upon  the  siphonage 
of  traps  made  by  Col.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  assisted 


68 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


by  the  writer  ;  by  Edward  S.  Philbrick,  C.  E.,  and 
Ernest  W.  Bowditch,  C.  E. ;  by  J.  P.  Putnam  and 
Glenn  Brown,  architects ;  by  Mr.  S.  Hellyer,  of  Lon- 
don, England ;  Dr.  Lissauer,  of  Dantzic,  Germany  ; 
Dr.  Renk,  of  Munich,  Germany,  and  others. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  are  greatly  at 
variance.  They  seem  to  indicate  that  while  in  some 
cases  traps  need  a  strong  protection  against  siphonage, 


Fig.  31. — S-trap  vented  to  prevent  a  long  dead  end  in  the  waste  pipe. 

in  other  cases,  especially  where  the  soil  and  waste 
pipes  have  ample  ventilation  and  branch  wastes  are 
very  short,  such  protection  is  not  required. 

Where  a  fixture  is  located  remote  from  a  vertical 
pipe  and  consequently  discharges  through  a  long  run 
of  waste  pipe,  which  would  otherwise  form  a  "  dead 
end"  (see  Fig.  31),  it  is  positively  necessary  to  run  a 
vent  pipe  from  the  crown  of  the  trap  upward  to  the 
outer  air,  which  prevents,  in  the  first  place,  a  stagna- 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING. 


69 


tion  of  air  and  at  the  same  time  stops  siphonage  ;  and 
this  is  true  of  any  kind  of  trap,  not  only  of  the  class  of 
traps  known  as  S-traps.  It  should  apply  to  non- 
siphoning-  traps  as  well. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  such  fixture  is  located  quite 
near  to  a  vertical  thoroughly  ventilated  soil  pipe,  or  a 
well-ventilated  horizontal  run  of  pipe  (see  Fig.  32),  I 
should  not  hesitate  to  place  under  the  fixture  a  trap 


Fig-  32. — Non-siphoning  trap  under  bowl,  where  this  is  near  a  thoroughly 
ventilated  soil  pipe. 

which  does   not  siphon  out,  omitting   the  special  air 

pipe- 
It  is  likewise  dangerous  to  use  vented  S-traps  with  the 

usual  small  depth  of  water  seal  of  only  ii  or  2  inches, 
under  bowls  or  tubs  in  spare  or  guest  rooms  of  large 
city  residences,  and  for  such  dwellings  generally  that 
are  occupied  only  a  part  of  the  year,  This  danger  is 
generally  disregarded  or  passed  over  lightly  by  enthu- 
siasts for  "back-air  piping."  My  personal  preference 
in  such  cases  would  always  be  for  a  non-siphoning 


70  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

trap,  with  a  water  seal  which  does  not  so  easily  evap- 
orate. Where  rules  of  local  boards  of  health  demand 
an  air  pipe  under  such  conditions,  I  advise  the  use  of 
a  tight-shutting  stop-valve  on  the  waste  pipe,  and 
combined  with  it  an  arrangement  for  a  simultaneous 
shutting  off  of  the  hot  and  cold  water  supply  to  the 
fixtures,  so  as  to  render  an  overflow  impossible.  The 
latter  arrangement  tends  to  complicate  the  plumbing 
work,  but,  under  the  conditions  mentioned,  it  would  be 
safer  than  a  vented  S-trap. 

In  this  connection  I  ought  to  mention  that  several 
devices  have  been  suggested  for  preserving  the  water 
seal  of  traps  which  prevent  the  loss  of  the  water  seal 
in  traps,  either  through  evaporation  or  siphonage,  by 
connecting  the  trap  by  means  of  a  special  pipe  with 
the  water  supply  in  such  a  manner  that  when  any  loss 
of  water  occurs  a  new  supply  of  fresh  water  is  imme- 
diately admitted. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  efficiency  of  a  de- 
vice of  this  kind,  but  its  use  would  somewhat  increase 
the  expense  of  fitting  up  plumbing  fixtures.  An 
objection  to  such  an  apparatus  would  seem  to  be  the 
danger  that  the  ball  cock  might  leak  without  the  fact 
becoming  apparent.  From  a  sanitary  point  such  a 
leakage  would  not  be  objectionable,  as  it  would  tend 
to  change  the  water  in  the  trap  constantly,  but  this 
latter  object  could  be  just  as  well  attained  by  keeping 
a  dribbling  stream  running  from  the  faucet  into  the 
fixture.  Such  an  arrangement  would,  however, 
largely  increase  the  waste  of  water,  which  is  already  a 


TRAPS    AND    SYSTEMS    OF    TRAPPING.  71 

source  of  serious  trouble  to  water  departments  ;  there- 
fore the  apparatus  is  not  likely  to  meet  with  favor. 

Valuable  scientific  researches  have  also  been  made 
relating  to  the  absorption  of  gases  by  the  water  in 
traps.  Dr.  Andrew  Fergus,  of  Glasgow,  was  the  first 
to  experiment  on  this  point,  and  his  conclusions, 
though  valuable,  were  modified  and  corrected  by  the 
result  of  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Neil  Carmichael, 
Edward  Frankland,  Prof.  Raphael  Pumpelly,  Dr. 
Wernich  and  Naegeli  in  Germany,  and  others. 

It  is  now  generally  accepted  that,  with  a  thoroughly 
ventilated  soil  and  waste  pipe  system,  little,  if  any, 
absorption  of  gases  by  the  water  of  traps  occurs. 
Even  should  such  water  contain  germs  of  disease, 
they  are  not  supposed  to  be  liberated  from  it  unless 
the  water  is  violently  agitated.  In  other  words,  there 
is  no  sufficient  reason  for  feeling  anxiety  in  regard  to 
absorption  of  deleterious  gases  by  water-seal  traps. 


III. 

DRAINAGE  AND  SEWERAGE  OF 
BUILDINGS. 


The  following  is  a  concise  description  of  what  may 
be  called  the  chief  features  of  a  well-devised  and  well- 
constructed  system  of  internal  sewerage  of  buildings. 

To  begin  with,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  removal 
and  disposal  of  underground  or  sub-soil  water  from 
the  site  of  the  buildings. 

The  term  "  drainage,"  in  distinction  to  "  sewerage," 
applies  to  the  removal  of  sub-soil  water  from  the  site 
upon  which  a  building  is  to  be  erected.  No  house 
can  be  considered  perfectly  healthy  unless  provision 
has  been  made  for  carrying  away  excessive  moisture 
from  the  soil.  Damp  and  wet  cellars  have  a  well- 
known  influence  in  predisposing  people  living  in  such 
houses  to  pulmonary  diseases. 

To  carry  off  sub-soil  water,  tile  drains  (common 
round  land  drains)  should  be  laid  at  a  depth  well 
below  the  cellar  floor,  in  parallel  lines,  their  distance 
depending  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  soil. 
The  tiles  may  be  i£  or  2  inches  in  diameter,  and 
should  be  laid  with  open  joints,  well  wrapped  with 
tarred  paper  or  strips  of  cotton  rags,  to  prevent  dirt 
from  falling  in  at  the  joints.  Such  branch  drains 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  73 

should  be  collected  into  one  main  cellar  drain  of  2 
inches  diameter  or  of  larger  size,  where  the  amount  of 
water  to  be  removed  is  excessive  on  account  of  springs 
or  for  other  reasons.  If  the  house  is  a  country  house 
this  cellar  drain  can  generally  be  continued  to  a  low 
point,  either  a  ditch,  ravine  or  water  course,  into  which 
it  should  discharge.  The  outlet  should  be  built  in 
stone  or  brick  masonry  and  must  be  well  protected  by  a 
strong  grating  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  rats  or  ver- 
min. Where  the  water  course  is  subject  to  back- 
flooding  from  sudden  rains  or  some  other  cause,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  apply  to  the  outlet  drain  a  tidal 
flap  or  ball  valve. 

If  the  house  stands  on  a  city  lot  the  only  outlet  gen- 
erally available  is  the  street  sewer.  To  connect  such 
cellar  drain  directly  to  a  sewer  or  to  a  house  drain 
leading  to  it  would  be  to  lay  sewer  air  on  to  the  house. 
There  should  be  a  thorough  disconnection  between  a 
sub-soil  drain  and  a  sewer,  which  can  be  effected  by  a 
flap-valve  trap  with  a  very  deep  water  seal,  not  liable 
to  be  affected  by  evaporation  in  hot,  dry  weather,  or 
by  a  gravel  trap  with  an  overflow  to  the  sewer. 

To  insure  a  dry  and  healthy  cellar  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  addition  to  the  cellar  drainage,  to  concrete  the 
cellar  floor  and  to  render  it  impervious  to  water  by  a 
good  rendering  of  Portland  cement,  or  better  still,  by 
a  layer  of  asphaltum,  spread  on  top  of  the  concrete. 

Dampness  of  foundation  walls  is  equally  bad  and 
dangerous  to  health,  and  can  be  most  efficiently  pre- 
vented by  asphalting  the  outer  face  of  the  foundation 


74  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

walls  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  by  the  use  of 
double  walls  with  air  space  between,  or  better  still,  by 
an  area  built  all  around  the  foundation  walls. 

The  chief  features  of  a  safe  internal  sewerage  sys- 
tem are  as  follows  : 

All  drain,  soil,  waste  and  air  pipes  inside  of  a  dwell- 
ing (except  the  short  branch  wastes  from  fixtures) 
should  be  of  heavy  iron. 

The  arrangement  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  should  be 
as  direct  as  possible,  and  long  branch  wastes  under 
floors  should  be  avoided  everywhere.  Each  stack 
should  run  up  as  straight  as  possible,  avoiding  offsets, 
which  are  objectionable. 

None  of  the  waste  or  vent  pipes  should  be  buried 
out  of  sight  and  rendered  absolutely  inaccessible.  It 
is  preferable  to  keep  them  in  sight,  except,  perhaps, 
on  the  parlor  floor.  The  public  has  long  been  accus- 
tomed and  does  not  object  to  the  running  of  steam 
pipes  in  plain  sight,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  soil 
pipes  should  not  be  treated  in  like  manner.  The  out- 
side of  the  pipes  can  be  painted,  or,  if  desired,  it  can 
be  gilt  or  bronzed,  as  is  done  with  steam  pipes. 
Where  pipes  must  be  placed  in  recesses  or  chases  in 
the  walls,  or  in  partitions,  they  should  be  covered  with 
hinged  wooden  panels,  or  with  boards,  fastened  with 
brass  screws  so  as  to  be  easily  removed  should  an 
inspection  of  the  plumbing  become  necessary. 

The  soil,  waste  and  air  pipe  system  should  be  made 
thoroughly  tight,  not  only  water-tight  but  air-tight 
as  well.  Hence  the  chief  requirement  is  that  the 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  /5 

pipes  must  be  of  thoroughly  sound  material,  and  that 
all  joints  be  perfectly  made. 

The  system  must  be  amply  ventilated  and  should 
have  no  long  "  dead  ends."  Each  soil  pipe,  therefore, 
must  extend  at  least  full  size  from  the  cellar  to  and 
through  the  roof  ;  waste  pipes  must  also  be  extended, 
but  should  be  enlarged  just  below  the  roof  to  four 
inches  in  diameter,  to  prevent  obstructions  of  the 
pipes  in  winter  through  hoar  frost. 

Wherever  practicable,  soil  and  waste  pipes  should 
run  along  a  heated  flue,  as  this  will  assist  in  creating 
an  upward  draft  in  the  ventilating  pipes. 

The  extensions  above  the  roof  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  not  less  than  two  feet  high,  so  as  to  be  well  exposed 
to  air  currents  ;  if  near  a  chimney  top,  they  must  ter- 
minate well  below  it.  In  any  case,  the  mouths  of  soil 
pipes  should  be  located  as  remote  as  possible  from 
ventilating  shafts,  chimney  flues  or  ventilating -sky- 
lights. 

The  outlets  of  all  pipes  above  the  roof  should  be 
kept  wide  open.  Return  bends  are  highly  objection- 
able ;  ventilating  caps  clog  up  in  winter  time  through 
hoar  frost.  None  of  the  many  patent  ventilators  are 
preferable  to  an  open-mouthed  pipe.  To  prevent 
obstructions  of  the  pipe  a  copper  mushroom-shaped 
wire  basket  (commonly  called  leader  guard)  may  be 
inserted  into  the  top  of  the  pipe. 

Soil  pipes  should  not,  ordinarily,  be  larger  than 
four  inches  in  diameter,  and  vertical  waste  pipes  for 
sinks  or  bowls  are  generally  made  two  inches  in 


76  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

diameter,  except  waste  pipes  for  slop  sinks,  which  are 
made  three  inches.  In  high  office  buildings  and 
apartment  houses,  in  tenements  and  factories  having 
a  large  number  of  water  closets  or  flushout  trough 
closets,  and  also  in  hospitals  for  insane,  it  is  better  to 
make  soil  pipes  five  inches  in  diameter.  Waste  pipes 
for  a  large  number  of  sinks  should  also  be  increased 
to  three  inches, 

Each  vertical  line  of  air  pipe  must  be  at  least  two 
inches  in  diameter,  increasing  at  the  upper  floors  (in 
the  case  of  high  buildings)  to  three  and  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  sometimes  even  larger  sizes.  Each 
line  of  air  pipe  should  be  dripped  at  the  bottom  into 
the  adjoining  soil  or  waste  pipe  and  be  extended  as 
straight  as  possible  up  through  the  roof,  where  its 
mouth  should  be  kept  free  and  exposed  and  provided 
with  a  screen  or  basket  for  protection  against  obstruc- 
tions. Air  pipes  may,  however,  branch  into  their  soil 
pipe  above  the  highest  fixture,  thus  avoiding  a  large 
number  of  holes  on  the  roof.  Each  vertical  line  of 
air  pipe  must  have  the  necessary  fittings  to  connect 
the  branch  air  pipes  from  the  traps  to  it.  All  such 
fittings  should  be  set  above  the  overflow  point  of  the 
fixtures,  to  prevent  the  air  pipe  from  acting  as  a  waste 
in  case  the  latter  should  become  stopped  up.  It  is 
a  mistake,  frequently  made,  to  use  inferior  material 
(lighter  pipes)  for  such  air  pipes.  They  unavoidably 
contain  more  or  less  foul  gases,  and  their  joints 
should  therefore  be  as  tight  as  those  of  soil  and  waste 
pipes. 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  77 

Leader  pipes,  if  inside  the  building,  must  be  of  cast 
iron  or  wrought  iron,  with  thoroughly  tight  joints. 
If  outside  leaders  open  at  the  top  near  attic  windows, 
or  near  chimney  flues  or  ventilating  shafts,  and  if 
they  are  made  of  metal  (galvanized  iron  or  tin)  and 
pass  near  windows  of  living  or  sleeping  rooms,  they 
must  be  trapped  by  a  trap  with  deep  seal  located  out 
of  reach  of  the  frost.  Heavy  cast  or  wrought  iron 
leaders  with  tight  joints  opening  at  the  top  remote 
from  flues  or  ventilators,  or  windows,  should  not  be 
trapped,  except  where  roofs  are  used  for  drying  pur- 
poses, or  for  pleasure,  as  in  the  case  of  roof  gardens. 

Each  stack  of  soil  or  waste  pipe  must  have  fit- 
tings in  proper  position  to  receive  the  flow  from  the 
fixtures.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  the  fit- 
tings on  vertical  soil  pipes  should  be  Y-branches  ;  a 
Tee-branch,  especially  if  its  flow  line  is  shaped  in  a 
curve,  will  answer  the  purpose  as  well,  and  such  is 
especially  the  case  for  small  waste  pipes  joining  the 
soil  pipe. 

The  flow  from  all  soil  and  waste  pipes  is  collected 
in  the  cellar,  the  aim  always  being  to  concentrate  the 
system  as  much  as  possible,  As  a  rule,  it  is  better  in 
city  houses  to  connect  the  rain  water  leaders  with  the 
drain  carrying  the  waste  water  of  the  household.  In 
country  residences,  where  the  rainfall  is  collected  in  a 
cistern,  a  separate  system  of  pipes  is  required,  and 
this  is  also  the  case  wherever  the  sewerage  system  of 
the  city  is  planned  and  executed  on  the  so-called 
"  separate  system." 


78  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  cellar  is  usually  the  place  where  the  various 
soil  and  waste  pipes  of  a  building  are  connected  or 
combined  into  one  main  drain,  called  the  cellar  or 
house  drain.  Mr.  Dempsey,  an  English  civil  engineer, 
speaks  about  the  arrangement  of  house  drains  as  fol- 
lows, in  his  book  "  Drainage  of  Towns  and  Build- 
ings": 

The  first  step  in  the  arrangement  is  to  collect  the  whole  of  the 
drainage  to  one  point,  the  head  of  the  intended  draining  apparatus, 
and  the  determination  of  this  point  requires  a  due  consideration  of 
its  relation  to  the  other  extremity  of  the  drain  at  which  the  discharge 
into  the  sewer  is  to  take  place.  In  buildings  of  great  extent,  this  will 
sometimes  involve  a  good  deal  of  arrangement,  and  it  will,  perhaps, 
become  desirable  to  divide  the  entire  drainage  into  two  or  more 
points  of  delivery,  and  conduct  it  in  so  many  separate  drains  to  the 
receiving  sewer.  The  length  of  each  drain  being  thus  reduced  to  a 
manageable  extent,  the  necessary  fall  will  be  more  readily  com- 
manded, and  the  efficiency  of  the  system  secured.  ...  If  the 
rain  water  falling  on  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  on  the  yard  or 
space  attached  to  the  house,  is  not  applied  to  any  other  purpose,  it 
will  have  to  be  conducted  into  the  drain  to  be  discharged  with  the 
sewage.  These  waters  being  purest  of  the  contents,  should  be  re- 
ceived as  near  as  possible  to  the  head  of  the  drain,  and  made  to 
traverse  its  entire  length,  and  thus  exert  all  the  cleansing  action  of 
which  they  are  capable. 

The  junction  between  upright  soil,  waste  or  leader 
pipes,  and  the  horizontal  drain,  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. The  best  support  that  could  be  given  to 
it  is  to  build  a  brick  pier  under  it,  and  to  rest  the 
weight  of  the  upright  pipe  stack  on  it.  Sometimes  a 
strong  wooden  post  is  of  service,  though  not  making 
as  substantial  a  job  as  a  brick  pier.  The  junction 
should  be  made  with  an  elbow  fitting  of  a  large 
radius,  or  with  Y-branchas  and  45°  bends,  in  order 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  79 

to  make  the  change  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  as 
gradual  as  possible.  A  right-angled  connection 
must  not  be  tolerated,  as  it  is  sure  to  cause  accumu- 
lation of  soil  matter  and  to  create  stoppages. 

It  is  to  be  recommended  to  run  the  main  cellar 
drain  in  sight  along  one  of  the  foundation  walls,  or 
to  carry  it  along  the  cellar  ceiling  suspended  from 
the  joists  or  iron  beams  by  strong  iron  hangers.  This 
brings  the  drain  in  sight  for  inspections,  and  it  is  a 
recognized  principle  of  modern  house  drainage  that 
as  little  as  possible  of  waste  pipes  and  of  the  plumb- 
ing work  in  general  should  be  hidden  from  view. 
The  necessity  of  running  the  house  drain  below  the 
cellar  floor  exists  only  in  rare  cases.  In  most  cases 
it  is  possible  to  banish  plumbing  fixtures  from  cellars, 
to  find  a  better  lighted  place  for  the  laundry  tubs, 
and  a  place  for  the  servants'  water  closet,  free  from 
the  objections  heretofore  made. 

Where  there  are  fixtures  in  the  cellar,  the"  main 
drain  must  run  below  the  floor,  and  in  this  case  it  is 
advisable  not  to  bury  it  entirely  out  of  sight.  Clean- 
ing hand-holes  should  be  provided  at  all  junctions  of 
branch  drains  with  the  main,  also  near  or  at  bends,  at 
the  trap,  and  at  the  foot  of  vertical  stacks,  so  as  to 
afford  ready  access  to  the  drain  pipes  in  case  of  acci- 
dental or  malicious  stoppage.  These  hand-holes  must 
be  left  accessible,  by  building  small  manholes  with 
covers  around  them.  Many  authorities  require  every 
drain  below  the  cellar  floor  tp  be  laid  in  a  trench  with 
concrete  bottom  and  with  brick  walls,  accessible 


8O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

throughout  its  entire  length.  This  seems  necessary 
only  where  inferior  material  is  used  and  where  the 
workmanship  is  not  first-class.  With  heavy  iron 
pipes,  tested  not  only  at  the  foundry  but  also  after 
being  placed  under  the  floor  of  the  house  (by  the 
water  or  air-pressure  test),  and  with  the  joints  well 
made,  it  is  better  to  bury  the  drain  pipes  in  concrete, 
leaving  out  places  for  access  only  wherever  really 
needed. 

For  all  horizontal  or  inclined  drains  the  rule  should 
be  laid  down  that  no  junction  should  be  made  at 
right  angles  with  Tees  ;  45°  Y  or  67^°  Y-branches 
must  be  used.  All  changes  from  the  straight  line 
must  be  made  with  curves  of  a  large  radius. 

The  fall  required  for  the  main  drain  will  depend 
upon  its  diameter  ;  the  latter  should  not  exceed  six 
inches  in  most  cases.  Where  a  building  is  unusually 
large  it  is  better  to  have  two  main  drains,  each  six 
inches  in  diameter,  than  one  drain  of  nine  inches. 
As  a  rule,  however,  four  and  five-inch  drains  are 
ample  for  ordinary  sizes  of  dwellings.  A  house  drain 
of  this  size  should,  if  possible,  have  a  fall  of  one-half 
inch  to  the  foot,  but  a  fall  of  one-fourth  inch  to  the 
foot  is  sufficient  to  carry  along  whatever  ought  only 
to  enter  such  pipes. 

If  the  main  drain  is  trapped,  the  running  trap  of 
iron  should  be  located  just  inside  the  cellar  wall  or 
else  it  may  be  placed  outside  the  house  in  a  man- 
hole. It  should  be  located  where  it  is  not  exposed 
to  freezing. 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  8l 

In  any  case  the  trap  must  not  be  absolutely  inac- 
cessible, as  it  is  possible  that  obstructions  may  occur 
at  this  point.  The  trap  should,  therefore,  be  provided 
with  cleaning  holes,  closed  air-tight  with  well-fitting 
brass  screw  caps.  It  is  advisable  to  provide  near  this 
trap  a  branch  from  a  leader,  so  as  to  obtain  an  occa- 
sional direct  and  vigorous  flush  at  each  rainfall. 

To  insure  a  full  circulation  of  fresh  air  through  the 
pipes,  a  fresh  air  pipe,  of  the  full  diameter  of  the  iron 
drain,  must  run  from  just  inside  the  trap  to  some 
point  outside,  well  remote  from  windows,  so  as  not  to 
cause  any  objectionable  smell,  as  it  becomes  at  times 
— though  seldom — an  outlet  instead  of  an  inlet. 

There  are  radical  differences  between  the  English 
house  drainage  system  and  the  system  used  with  us, 
which  may  be  readily  explained  by  the  difference  in 
climate.  It  is  a  cardinal  principle  with  English  sani- 
tary engineers  to  locate  soil  pipes  outside  of  the 
house,  and  further,  to  separate  water  closet  wastes 
from  the  other  wastes  of  the  household.  Waste  pipes 
from  lavatories,  bath  tubs,  sinks,  etc.,  are  required  to 
have  no  direct  connection  with  a  foul  water  drain  ; 
they  must  discharge  over  open  gullies,  which  are 
trapped  and  connected  with  the  house  drain.  The 
severity  of  our  climate  would  prohibit  such  an 
arrangement  in  all  but  the  Southern  States.  We 
must  keep  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  inside  of  a  dwell- 
ing, and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  do  not  for  a  moment 
hesitate  to  connect  bath  or  bowl  wastes  to  a  soil  pipe, 
provided  the  latter  is  efficiently  ventilated  and  the  fix- 
tures safely  trapped. 


82 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


As  soon  as  the  iron  soil  and  drain  pipe  system  is 
completed,  its  tightness  should  be  tested  by  the  water- 
pressure  or  by  an  air-pressure  test. 

Tightness  of  joints  may  be  ascertained  and  secured, 
and  defects  in  the  piping  detected,  by  applying  a 


Fig-  33- — Diagram  illustrating  the  application  of  the  water-pressure  test  to  the  soil, 
drain  and  waste  pipe  system  in  a  city  house. 

"  water-pressure  test."  Before  setting  and  joining 
any  fixtures  to  the  soil  and  waste  pipes,  all  outlets  are 
closed  by  India  rubber  plugs,  squeezed  with  iron  discs 
by  means  of  a  bolt  and  nut,  and  the  pipes,  including 
the  lead  or  iron  branches  and  brass  ferrule  joints,  filled 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  83 

with  water.  Should  there  be  a  leak  it  is  readily  de- 
tected and  immediately  remedied.  The  test  is  then 
repeated  until  there  are  no  more  signs  of  a  leak.  The 
application  of  the  test  is  shown  in  Fig.  33,  which 
illustrates  a  vertical  section  through  a  three-story  city 
house,  and  also  shows  the  proper  arrangement  of  soil, 
waste  and  drain  pipes,  the  plumbing  fixtures  being 
removed  for  the  test,  or  not  yet  placed  in  position. 
For  very  high  buildings  the  head  of  water  becomes 
too  great  at  the  bottom  of  the  stack,  and  in  such 
cases  the  pipes  are  tested  in  sections.  This  test  is 
undoubtedly  stronger  and  more  useful  than  the  pep- 
permint or  smoke  test ;  it  is  easily  applied,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  things  in  connection  with  the 
plumbing  of  dwellings.  It  should  always  be  applied 
by  the  Plumbing  Inspector  of  the  Health  Board  in 
cities  where  plumbing  is  regulated  by  law ;  for  a 
house  with  a  network  of  waste  pipes,  that  have  suc- 
cessfully stood  this  test,  is  a  much  safer  place  for 
human  beings  than  houses  the  pipes  of  which  have 
not  been  tested. 

Another  test  is  the  air-pressure  test  by  a  force  pump 
and  a  manometer  or  mercury  gauge.  In  this  test 
every  part  of  the  pipe  system  is  subject  to  a  uniform 
pressure,  while  in  the  water  test  the  pressure  increases 
with  every  foot  in  height  of  water,  thereby  often  put- 
ting an  unusually  severe  strain  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  pipe  system.  It  is,  however,  much  more  difficult 
to  find  leaks  in  a  soil  and  drain  pipe  system  by  means 
of  the  "pneumatic"  test,  and  for  many  reasons  the 
water  test  appears  preferable. 


84  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  completed  plumbing-  work  is  tested  by  a  smoke 
test  or  a  peppermint  test,  which  I  will  describe  later  on. 

The  house  drain  should  be  carried  of  iron  pipe  to  a 
point  well  beyond  the  foundation  walls.  Whether  it 
should  be  continued  any  further  with  iron  pipe,  or 
whether  vitrified,  well-glazed  pipes  may  be  used  for 
the  external  sewerage,  will  depend  entirely  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  For  made  ground,  heavy  iron 
pipe  is  decidedly  to  be  preferred,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  lay  the  pipes  on  a  good  solid  foundation.  It 
is  also  safer  to  run  a  drain  of  iron  pipe  where  it  passes 
near  a  well  which  furnishes  drinking  water.  Occa- 
sionally roots  of  trees  cause  considerable  trouble  with 
vitrified  pipe,  especially  if  the  joints  of  the  latter  are 
poorly  cemented.  In  such  a  case,  iron  pipes,  with 
caulked  joints,  are  preferable. 

Fig.  34  represents  a  section  through  a  country 
dwelling  house,  showing  all  drain,  soil  and  waste 
pipes  ;  also  the  plumbing  fixtures  and  the  mode  of 
trapping  these.  In  this  case  non-siphoning  traps  are 
used  under  all  sinks,  basins  and  tubs,  and  the  water 
closets  have  traps  with  a  deep  seal,  so  that  there  is  no 
good  reason  for  applying  the  back  vent  pipes,  and  the 
system  is  thereby  much  simplified  and  improved. 

A  few  details  concerning  drain  and  soil  pipes  and 
the  method  of  joining  them,  will  now  be  discussed 
somewhat  in  detail.  For  all  drains  laid  underground 
or  below  the  cellar  floor,  the  best  available  material  is 
extra  heavy  cast  iron  pipe. 

To  quote  from  Capt.  Douglas  Galton,  an  expe- 
rienced engineer : 


86  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  use  of  cast  iron  for  house  drains,  if  the  cast  iron  is  solid, 
sound  and  free  from  porosity,  will  prevent  leakage  and  sub-soil  taint- 
ing beneath  the  house,  and  will  be  as  cheap  as  earthenware  pipes  in 
many  cases.  .  .  .  Lead  joints  can  only  be  made  in  a  strong  iron 
pipe,  and  the  use  of  these  joints  is,  to  some  extent,  a  guarantee  of 
soundness,  but  every  pipe  should  be  carefully  tested  by  water  pres- 
sure, to  see  that  there  are  no  holes  or  flaws. 

Extra  heavy  cast  iron  plumbers'  soil  pipes  are  man- 
ufactured in  lengths  of  five  feet,  with  a  hub  and  a 
spigot  end.  As  regards  the  strength  of  such  pipes 
much  will  depend  upon  their  manufacture.  The 
metal  used  should  be  re-melted  pig  iron  of  homogene- 
ous texture,  free  and  easy  flowing  when  poured  into 
the  mould  ;  the  fracture  must  show  a  dark  gray  color. 
Then  again,  great  care  and  diligence  must  be 
bestowed  upon  the  making  and  drying  of  the  pipe 
moulds  and  cores  ;  the  loam  and  sand  should  be  care- 
fully chosen,  in  order  to  form  smooth  and  substantial 
moulds. 

It  is  now  pretty  well  understood  by  all  manufac- 
turers of  heavy  cast  iron  pipe  that  the  pipes  should  be 
cast  on  end,  in  order  to  obtain  a  uniform  thickness 
of  shell,  which  is  the  great  desideratum  for  all  pipes. 
If  cast  in  a  lying  or  inclined  position,  the  molten 
metal  poured  into  the  mould  has  a  tendency  to  float 
the  core  and  bend  it  upward  in  the  centre,  conse- 
quently the  thickness  of  the  shell  will  be  much  greater 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  pipe.  Experts  disagree  in 
regard  to  the  position  of  the  socket  while  casting.  In 
England  it  is  customary  to  cast  heavy  pipes  with  the 
socket  downward.  In  such  a  position,  it  is  claimed, 
the  head  of  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal,  equivalent  to 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  87 

the  length  of  pipe,  will  secure  a  strong  socket,  free 
from  air  bubbles  or  other  defects.  The  top  end  will 
often  be  spongy,  containing  floating  dirt,  slag,  scoriae 
and  air  bubbles.  Should  this  occur  with-  the  socket 
or  bell  end  of  the  pipe  it  would  render  the  socket 
weak  and  often  worthless  for  caulking  purposes,  while 
the  spigot  end  may  be  cut  off  if  necessary.  A  large 
bead  is  often  given  to  the  spigot  end  of  the  pipe, 
which  is  afterward  removed  by  cutting.  In  Germany, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  custom  prevails  of  casting 
pipes  socket  upward.  In  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica the  general  practice  is  to  cast  all  pipes  from  three 
inches  to  twelve  inches  diameter,  socket  upward, 
while  larger  sizes  are  always  cast  socket  downward. 
There  are,  I  believe,  practical  advantages,  such  as  the 
easier  drawing  and  removing  of  patterns,  which  influ- 
ence the  American  foundries  to  cast  with  socket 
upward. 

After  being  cast  all  pipes  should  be  carefully  pro- 
tected from  sudden  chills  ;  the  cooling  should  be  grad- 
ual and  slow,  so  as  to  avoid  imperfections  in  the 
metal.  After  cooling  off  the  pipes  are  carefully 
cleaned  with  steel  wire  brushes  and  scrupulously 
inspected. 

All  such  pipes  should  be  straight,  truly  cylindrical, 
of  a  uniform  thickness,  of  a  uniform  and  homogeneous 
texture,  of  perfect  smooth  surface,  free  from  flaws  or 
other  imperfections,  and  the  spigot  end  should  have  a 
true  fit  in  the  hub  of  the  pipe.  The  pipe  must  not  be 
brittle,  and  must  allow  of  ready  cutting,  chipping, 
drilling  or  threading. 


88  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  weight  of  cast  iron  pipes,  used  for  sewerage 
purposes,  should  be  at  least  as  follows : 

Two-inch  pipe 5 -J-  pounds  per  foot. 

Three-inch  pipe 9^ 

Four-inch  pipe 13 

Five-inch  pipe 17 

Six-inch  pipe 20 

In  particular  situations  it  is  advisable  to  use  an  even 
heavier  pipe. 

After  a  careful  and  thorough  inspection,  each  pipe 
must  be  tested  under  pressure  in  a  hydraulic  testing 
machine.  While  under  such  pressure  the  whole 
length  of  the  pipe  should  be  repeatedly  struck  hard 
with  a  heavy  hammer,  in  order  to  detect  flaws  or 
weak  parts  of  the  pipe  shell.  If  the  sound  of  the 
hammer  striking  the  pipe  metal  is  clear  or  bell-like,  it 
is  a  pretty  sure  indication  of  the  absence  of  any  of 
the  above  imperfections. 

After  it  is  thus  made  sure  that  the  pipe  is  free  from 
air  bubbles,  flaws,  shrinkage  cracks,  sand-holes,  etc.,  the 
pipe  is  sometimes  coated  in  order  to  protect  it  against 
corrosion.  The  best  solution  known  for  cast  iron  pipe 
is  Dr.  Angus  Smith's  patent  coal-tar  varnish.  After 
placing  the  pipes  in  an  oven,  they  are  heated  so  as  to 
well  open  the  pores,  and  the  solution  is  likewise  kept 
hot  in  a  tank,  care  being  taken  that  it  does  not  get 
too  great  a  consistency.  The  pipes  are  then  im- 
mersed in  a  bath  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes, then  removed,  when  the  surplus  of  varnish  is 
allowed  to  drip  off  from  the  pipe.  There  should  be 
only  a  thin,  smooth  coating  of  varnish  over  the  pipe. 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  89 

For  underground  pipes  I  decidedly  prefer  the  tar- 
coated  pipe,  but  for  all  exposed  pipes  inside  of  build- 
ings the  use  of  uncoated  pipes  is  now  universal. 

A  word  of  caution  seems  appropriate  in  regard  to 
failures  of  cast  iron  pipes  through  rough  handling 
during  carting,  or  loading  and  unloading.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  throw  any  pipes  violently 
on  the  ground,  nor  to  expose  the  pipes  to  violent 
accidental  blows.  Owing  to  the  brittleness  of  the 
material,  cast  iron  pipes  often  split  or  break  off  at  the 
ends,  and  the  split,  although  hardly  perceptible  on 
the  outside,  may  continue  longitudinally  very  far, 
which  fact  can  only  be  detected  by  the  pressure  test. 

In  laying  such  cast  iron  pipes  the  spigot  end  of  one 
pipe  must  be  inserted  as  straight  as  possible  and  con- 
centric into  the  hub  end  of  the  next  pipe,  care  being 
taken  before  doing  so  that  the  pipe  is  clean  and  free 
from  all  dirt  on  the  inside.  A  gasket  of  oakum  or 
dry  hemp  is  then  inserted  into  the  space  between 
socket  and  spigot,  and  well  rammed  with  a  caulking 
tool.  This  gasket  should  fill  about  one-half  of  the 
depth  of  the  hub,  its  object  being  to  prevent  any 
molten  lead  from  flowing  into  the  pipe  at  the  joint, 
but  also  to  assist  in  tightening  the  joint. 

A  roll  of  good,  tough  clay  is  placed  around  and 
pressed  against  the  front  of  the  pipe  bell,  leaving  an 
opening  on  the  top,  where  the  two  ends  of  the  clay 
roll  meet,  large  enough  to  admit  of  pouring  in  the 
lead.  This  clay  ring  prevents  the  escape  of  molten 
lead  while  running  the  joint. 


90  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  lead  used  for  making  pipe  joints  should  be  soft 
and  pure,  without  any  admixture  of  tin,  zinc  or  other 
metal.  If  hard  or  impure  lead  is  used  the  caulking 
operation  strains  the  bells,  often  so  much  as  to  burst 
or  split  them.  The  lead  is  melted  in  a  large  pot  kept 
on  a  furnace.  It  should  be  heated  to  a  proper  tem- 
perature in  order  to  prevent  too  sudden  cooling  while 
pouring  it.  A  large  ladle,  wrhich  must  be  capable  of 
holding  enough  molten  lead  for  one  joint,  is  used  to 
pour  the  lead  into  the  space  between  spigot  and  bell. 
It  is  important  that  enough  molten  lead  be  poured  in 
at  one  operation  to  quite  fill  the  joint,  for  if  the  lead 
is  not  poured  in  in  a  continuous  stream,  the  joint  will 
not  be  perfect  and  homogeneous. 

As  soon  as  the  socket  is  quite  filled,  the  ring  of 
clay  is  then  removed  and  the  lead  allowed  to  cool, 
while  the  superfluous  lead  is  cut  off  with  a  cold  chisel. 
The  lead  naturally  shrinks  and  does  not  make  a  tight 
joint ;  it  therefore  requires  a  thorough  setting  up  or 
caulking,  wrhich  is  done  first  with  a  hammer  and  flat 
caulking  tool,  next  with  a  similar  broader  tool,  with 
a  slight  curve  corresponding  to  the  size  or  radius  of 
the  pipe. 

To  insure  a  perfect  joint  the  ring  of  lead  should 
have  an  equal  thickness  all  around.  This  thickness 
varies  from  one-fourth  to  three-eighths  inch  ;  the  ring 
should  have  a  depth  of  from  i^  to  2  inches.  It  is 
usual  to  require  twelve  ounces  of  lead  for  each  inch 
of  internal  diameter  of  the  pipe. 

The  lead  must  be  left  exposed,  so  as   to   show   the 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  9 1 

marks  of  the  caulking  tools.  No  paint,  cement  or 
putty  should  be  used  to  fill  the  space  in  front  of  the 
lead  joint. 

A  proper  caulking-  operation  always  puts  a  heavy 
strain  on  the  sockets  of  the  cast  iron  pipe,  and,  in 
order  to  withstand  it  and  prevent  the  bursting  of 
bells,  the  latter  should  be  designed  very  strong,  with 
an  extra  thickness  of  metal  at  the  end  of  the  hub  and 
at  the  point  where  the  socket  joins  the  pipe.  The 
thickness  of  the  hub  should  not  be  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  thickness  of  the  pipe.  This  latter  point  is 
less  thoroughly  understood.  The  failure  of  common 
light  plumbers'  pipe  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
both  the  pipe  shell  and  the  thickness  of  the  bell  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  While  it  may  be  possible  to 
reduce  the  former  slightly,  wherever  there  is  no  heavy 
inside  pressure  or  outside  superincumbent  weight,  the 
latter  should  always  be  kept  heavy  enough  to  with- 
stand a  thorough  caulking. 

In  making  lead  joints  in  cast  iron  pipes,  much,  of 
course,  depends  upon  the  skill,  sound  judgment, 
experience,  but  above  all,  upon  the  honesty  of  the 
workman.  Careless  or  dishonest  mechanics  are  very 
apt  to  do  the  caulking  of  the  lead  imperfectly,  or  to 
omit  this  operation  entirely  at  the  under  side  of  a  hori- 
zontal joint,  which  is  difficult  of  access  and  not  so 
readily  inspected.  Perfect  workmanship  is  absolutely 
essential  in  the  case  of  iron  drain  pipes  not  less  than 
for  water  or  gas  mains. 

Cast  iron  pipes  are  sometimes  cast  with  flanges  at 


92  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

both  ends,  but  such  joints  are  more  difficult  to  make 
tight,  and  a  flange  joint,  being  more  unyielding  than 
a  lead  joint,  causes  fractures  of  the  pipe.  There  are 
other  joints  in  cast  iron  pipes,  such  as  the  turned  and 
bored  joint,  and  many  patent  joints,  none  of  which, 
however,  are  used  much  for  sewerage  purposes. 

Rust  joints  in  cast  iron  pipe  are  frequently  used, 
especially  for  blow-off  pipes  from  boilers  and  for 
steam  pipes ;  also  for  cast  iron  pipes  used  in  green- 
house heating.  In  place  of  lead,  an  iron  cement  is 
employed  to  make  a  joint.  A  quick-setting  cement 
is  composed  of  : 

98  parts  fine  cast  iron  borings. 

i  part  flowers  of  sulphur. 

i  part  sal  ammoniac. 
To  be  mixed  with  boiling  water  before  use. 

A  slow-setting  cement  is  made  as  follows  : 

197  parts  fine  cast  iron  boring. 

1  part  flowers  of  sulphur. 

2  parts  sal  ammoniac. 

More  recently,  a  patented  compound  of  steel  and 
iron,  with  other  ingredients,  called  "Smooth  on 
Joints,"  has  been  introduced,  which  is  made  up  by  the 
plumber  into  a  paste  without  using  heat  and  used  in 
the  pipe  joints,  where  it  soon  solidifies  and  hardens. 
It  appears  to  secure  perfectly  tight  joints,  which 
are  not  affected  by  expansion  and  contraction,  but 
further  experience  as  to  durability  is  desirable  before 
this  new  compound  can  be  endorsed.  It  has  the  one 

; 

great  incidental  advantage  that  it  does  away  with  the 
necessity  of  plumbers'  melting  pots  and  furnaces  in 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  93 

non-fireproof   buildings,   and    therefore   removes  the 
danger  of  fire. 

Cast  iron  drain  pipes  require  a  number  of  fittings, 
such  as  elbows,  Y-branches,  traps,  and  Tee-branches, 
which  are  cast  with  bells  and  connected  to  the 
pipes  in  the  same  manner  as  lengths  of  pipe  are  put 
together.  All  such  castings  should  be  carefully 
examined  before  use.  They  should  be  sound,  smooth, 
especially  on  the  inside,  without  lumps,  sand-holes, 
flaws  or  scoriae.  The  inspection  of  castings  is  very 
important,  for,  as  Mr.  Baldwin  Latham  says  : 

There  are  faults,  to  which  all  articles  made  of  cast  iron  are  liable, 
and  which  may  escape  observation  even  after  the  most  careful  scru- 
tiny, and,  in  consequence,  there  will  ever  remain  a  certain  degree  of 
uncertainty  as  to  the  strength  of  iron  castings,  for  there  are  numerous 
instances  which  may,  more  or  less,  affect  the  quality  of  the  manufac- 
tured article,  such  as  unequal  contraction  in  cooling,  imperfections 
from  latent  flaws  which  may  be  concealed  by  a  covering  of  sound 
metal,  the  brittle  nature  of  the  material,  the  presence  of  some  delete- 
rious agent  in  the  metal  itself,  all  tending  to  render  cast  iron  more 
or  less  uncertain  and  liable  to  fail  without  warning.  .  .  ^  .  The 
proper  admixture  of  the  iron  in  the  foundry  is  one  of  considerable 
importance  in  order  to  insure  a  perfect  casting  ;  for,  as  different 
varieties  of  iron  have  different  points  of  fusion  and  varying  rates  of 
cooling,  unless  a  proper  admixture  is  insured,  the  casting  will  have 
within  itself  an  element  tending  to  produce  its  own  destruction,  for, 
while  some  of  the  metal  may  be  in  perfect  fusion,  other  parts  may  be 
imperfectly  fused,  while  again  others  may  be  burned  ;  or  in  cooling, 
some  of  the  metals  may  cool  faster  or  slower  than  others,  conse- 
quently the  casting  maybe  thus  brought  into  a  state  of  unequal  ten- 
sion, or,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  "hide-bound,"  when  such  slight 
influences  as  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  may  lead  to  its  instant 
destruction. 

If  cast  iron  pipe  is  used  for  vertical  soil,  waste  and 
vent  pipes,  it  should  be  of  the  same  character  and 
quality  as  above  described  for  drain  pipes,  for  only 


94  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

pipes  of  such  superior  properties  allow  the  construc- 
tion of  a  pipe  system,  equally  tight  as  regards  leak- 
age of  sewage  and  of  sewer  air. 

Within  the  past  few  years  rustless  wrought  iron 
pipe  has  been  used  extensively  for  soil,  waste,  air  and 
leader  lines.  It  was  first  introduced  in  the  Durham 
System  of  House  Drainage,  which  presented  novel 
features  of  interest  to  engineers,  architects  and  sani- 
tarians. Its  chief  departure  from  the  common  sys- 
tem of  plumbing  consisted  in  the  use  of  rustless 
wrought  iron  pipes  for  all  pipes  above  ground,  espe- 
cially for  all  upright,  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes. 

The  pipe  used  is  the  standard  wrought  iron,  lap- 
welded  steam  pipe.  This  is  extensively  manufac- 
tured by  "tube  works"  at  the  rolling  mills,  and 
comes  in  the  market  in  lengths  of  about  twenty  feet. 
Bars  of  wrought  iron  of  a  width  corresponding  to  the 
circumference  of  the  pipe  are  bent  up  to  a  circular 
shape  by  means  of  powerful  machines,  while  in  a 
red  heat.  The  ends  of  the  smaller  sizes  (up  to  two 
inches  in  diameter)  are  made  to  butt  against  each 
other,  while  the  larger  sizes  lap  over.  The  bars  are 
then  again  highly  heated  and  welded  together,  after 
which  operation  they  are  adjusted  so  as  to  be  exactly 
circular  in  shape. 

Before  leaving  the  works,  and  while  hot,  the 
wrought  iron  pipes  are  immersed  in  a  tank,  con- 
taining hot  liquid  asphalt,  which  coating  of  the  pipes 
effectually  protects  their  inside  against  corrosion. 
Some  building  and  plumbing  regulations  now  require 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  95 

all  wrought  iron  pipes  used  for  drainage  purposes  to 
be  galvanized.  All  standard  wrought  iron  pipes  are 
tested  at  the  works  by  hydraulic  pressure  up  to  500 
pounds  per  square  inch,  and  a  guarantee  of  good 
and  durable  material  is  thus  secured. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  size,  thickness  and 
weights  of  pipes  used  for  soil  and  vent  pipes  : 


SIZE  OF  PIPE. 

THICKNESS  OF   PIPE. 

WEIGHT  IN   POUNDS 
PER  FOOT. 

2  inches. 

•154 

3.67 

3     " 

.217 

7-55 

4     " 

•237 

10.73 

5     " 

•259 

14.56 

6     " 

.280 

18.77 

The  pipes  are  put  together  the  same  as  steam 
pipes,  with  screw  joints.  The  screw  thread,  cut  ex- 
ternally on  the  pipe,  is  slightly  tapering,  and  so  is  the 
internal  thread  cut  on  the  fittings.  It  is  customary 
for  pipes  from  two  to  six  inches  in  diameter  to  have 
eight  screw  threads  per  inch.  These  thread's  were 
formerly  cut  on  a  lathe,  if  done  by  machine  work  ;  if 
by  hand,  by  the  use  of  die-stocks.  Since  a  number 
of  years  large  hand  and  power  pipe-cutting  machines 
have  been  manufactured,  which  use  dies  and  cutters, 
by  which  a  large  saving  in  time  may  be  effected. 
Instead  of  cutting  internal  threads  of  fittings  in  a 
lathe,  they  are  now  tapped  by  powerful  tapping 
machines. 

In  order  to  make  up  for  imperfections  in  the  threads 
of  the  pipe  and  fitting,  a  paste  is  used  in  making  the 
joints,  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  lin- 


96  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

seed  oil  with  red  lead.     This  paste  hardens  after  some 
time  and  forms  a  tight  packing  in  the  screw  joint. 

The  pipes  are  cut  to  required  lengths,  from  exact 
measurement,  in  a  power  pipe-cutting  and  threading 
machine.  Straight  lengths  of  pipe  are  screwed 
together  by  means  of  wrought  iron  couplings  ;  for 
changes  of  direction,  special  fittings,  such  as  elbows, 
T  and  Y-branches  are  used.  It  is  generally  possible 
to  run  such  soil  and  vent  pipes  from  floor  to  floor 
without  intermediate  joints ;  the  total  number  of 


COM  MUM  STEAM  firriNO.  RECESSED  DRAINAGE    FJTTINO-. 

Fig.  35.— Illustration  showing  difference  between  common  steam  and  recessed 

drainage  fittings. 

joints  in  each  soil  pipe  stack  is  consequently  largely 
reduced,  and  considerable  labor  is  also  saved. 

The  fittings  used  for  wrought  iron  drainage  systems 
are  recessed  malleable  iron  fittings.  Common  steam 
fittings  are  unfit  for  purposes  of  house  drainage,  as  they 
leave  interior  depressions,  when  the  pipe  is  screwed 
up,  which  would  collect  sewage.  The  recessed  fittings 
are  tapped  with  a  shoulder,  and  when  the  wrought 
iron  pipe  is  screwed  home  its  interior  and  that  of  the 
fitting  form  a  practically  continuous  line  (see  Fig.  35). 

It  occasionally  happens  in  any  system  of  soil  or 
waste  pipes  that  a  length  of  pipe  must  be  taken  out 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  97 

and  replaced,  which  can  only  be  effected  with  plumb- 
ers' soil  pipe  by  bursting  a  fitting.  Such  a  result  can 
also  be  attained  in  wrought  iron  soil  pipes  by  break- 
ing a  fitting ;  the  new  length  can  be  inserted  either 
by  a  flange  joint  or  else  by  the  use  of  a  running 
thread  and  a  lock-nut.  It  must  be  remembered  that, 
in  the  case  of  plumbers'  soil  pipe,  a  heavy  knocking 
to  break  the  pipe  is  likely  to  loosen  many,  if  not  all, 
lead  joints  of  the  stack,  while  the  screw  joints  are  not 
so  easily  affected. 

It  is  true,  on  the  other  hand,  that  cast  iron  pipes 
are  more  easily  and  quickly  cut  for  making  connec- 
tions without  the  necessity  of  great  mechanical  skill 
or  any  expensive  tools.  Wrought  iron  pipes  require 
heavy  and  costly  stationary  machines,  to  which  the 
pipe  must  be  sent  to  be  cut  and  threaded,  or  else 
slow-working  and  expensive  hand  tools.  The  lengths 
must  be  measured  very  accurately  and  put  together 
by  skilled  mechanics.  Some  of  the  fittings,  for 
instance  Y-branches  and  long  T-Y's  for  wrought  iron 
pipe,  are  not  so  easily  put  in  place,  on  upright  pipes 
in  chases,  as  the  cast  iron  fittings,  but  a  skilled  me- 
chanic is  generally  able,  with  a  little  ingenuity,  to 
overcome  such  difficulties.  It  must  also  be  consid- 
ered that  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in  labor  in 
putting  up  wrought  iron  pipe  stacks  as  compared  with 
the  labor  of  erecting  a  stack  of  cast  iron  pipe. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  asserted  that  wrought  iron 
rusts  quicker  than  cast  iron,  if  plain  and  entirely 
unprotected.  This  is  true  and  well  known  to  every 


98  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

engineer,  but  it  does  not  prevent  engineers  from  using 
an  otherwise  excellent,  and,  in  many  respects  and  for 
many  uses,  superior  material.  All  iron  pipe  used  for 
sewerage  purposes  must  be  efficiently  protected 
against  corrosion,  and  such  is  done  with  cast  iron 
pipes  by  coating  them  with  coal-tar  pitch,  while 
wrought  iron  pipes  are  dipped,  while  thoroughly 
heated,  into  hot  asphalt,  or  else  they  are  zinc-coated 
or  galvanized.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the 
asphalt  coating,  if  done  with  equal  care,  should  wear 
off,  when  the  pipe  is  in  use,  quicker  from  wrought 
iron  than  from  cast  iron  pipes.  It  is  a  fact  that  all 
soil  and  waste  pipes  are  coated  after  a  little  use  with 
a  peculiar  greasy  slime,  which  tends  to  protect  the 
pipe — a  cast  iron  as  well  as  a  wrought  iron  pipe — 
against  corrosion.  As  mechanical  science  advances 
better  means  will  undoubtedly  become  available  to 
protect  soil  pipes  from  corrosion. 

Amongst  rust-preventing  processes  of  recent  origin, 
I  mention  the  Bower-Barff  Rustless  Process,  which 
consists  in  subjecting  iron  or  steel  to  the  action  of 
superheated  steam  in  a  furnace,  until  the  surface  of 
the  iron  is  covered  with  a  more  or  less  thick  coating 
of  magnetic  oxide,  which,  as  is  well  known,  is  un- 
affected by  exposure  to  air  or  moisture.  The  advan- 
tages of  such  a  process  are  obvious :  above  all  every 
part  of  the  article  is  reached  and  treated,  while  with 
painting,  oiling,  enameling  or  asphalting,  corner 
nooks  and  flaws  in  the  iron  may  not  be  reached,  thus 
failing  to  secure  a  thorough  protection  against  rust. 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS.  99 

The  thoroughly  jointed  and  ventilated  soil  and 
waste  pipe  system  receives  the  waste  water  from 
plumbing  fixtures  through  short  branch  waste  pipes, 
which  may  be  of  iron  or  else  of  drawn  lead  pipe.  The 
latter  is  made  of  all  sizes  in  coils  of  any  desired 
length,  by  pressing  molten  lead  by  means  of  a 
hydraulic  press  through  dies,  through  which  a  core  is 
inserted.  Waste  pipes  of  lead  should  be  of  the  fol- 
lowing sizes  and  weights  : 

For  one  washbowl,  i£  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  row  of  basins,  1^-2  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  bath  tub,  i|— 2  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  row  of  bath  tubs,  likely  to  be  used  at  once,  2-3  inches  in 
diameter. 

For  a  pantry  sink,  i|—  2  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  kitchen  sink,  2  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  set  of  laundry  trays,  1^-2  inches  in  diameter. 

For  a  slop  sink,  2-3  inches  in  diameter. 

The  weight  should  be  about  3^  pounds  for  i|-inch  pipe,  five 
pounds  for  two-inch  pipe,  six  pounds  for  three-inch  pipe,  eight 
pounds  for  four-inch  pipe. 

All  joints  in  lead  pipe  should  be  wiped  solder 
joints,  and  no  cup  joints  should  be  tolerated,  except 
where  local  circumstances  render  the  wiping  of  a 
joint  impossible. 

Where  lead  pipe  joins  iron  pipe  the  following  mode 
of  connection  is  recommended  :  If  the  soil  or  air 
pipes  are  of  cast  iron,  heavy  brass  caulking  ferrules 
must  be  used,  soldered  to  the  lead  pipe  and  caulked 
with  oakum  and  lead  into  the  hub  of  the  iron  pipe. 
Where  the  soil  pipe  system  is  of  wrought  iron,  lead 
waste  pipes  and  lead  branch  air  pipes  from  traps  are 
connected  to  it  by  brass  screw  nipples,  wiped  to  the 


IOO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

lead  pipe  with  solder,  and  screwed  tightly  with  red 
lead  by  a  wrench  into  the  threaded  opening  of  the 
fitting.  Drawn  brass  ferrules  and  nipples  are  superior 
to  those  of  cast  brass. 

Each  fixture  connected  to  the  soil  or  waste  pipe 
system  must  be  provided  as  near  as  possible  to  its 
outlet  with  a  suitable  trap,  secure  against  siphonage, 
back  pressure,  evaporation,  etc.  If  lead  traps  are 
used,  the  weight  of  the  lead  should  be  equivalent  to 
the  weight  of  the  lead  pipe. 

Each  fixture  should,  wherever  possible,  discharge 
into  the  main  soil  or  waste  pipe  independently.  The 
branch  wastes  should  in  all  cases  be  as  short  and 
direct  as  possible,  and  this  will  largely  depend  on  a 
judicious  planning  and  locating  of  fixtures  by  the 
architect. 

Overflow  pipes,  if  such  are  used  for  fixtures,  must 
connect  to  the  waste  pipe  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  trap 
or  below  its  water  level. 

Drip  pipes  for  safes  under  fixtures  should  not  have 
any  connection  whatever  with  any  soil  or  waste  pipe 
or  drain.  They  should  be  collected  in  the  basement 
or  cellar  and  discharge  over  an  open  sink,  so  that  any 
leakage  may  be  at  once  apparent. 

Refrigerator  wastes  must  never  be  directly  con- 
nected to  any  soil,  waste  or  drain  pipe.  These  wastes 
are  very  apt  to  become  coated  in  a  short  time  with 
slime  and  dirt ;  they  frequently  stop  up  and  are  gen- 
erally liable  to  become  offensive,  especially  the  if  ice 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS. 


IOI 


used  is  very  impure.     They  should  therefore  be  so 
arranged  that  they  can  readily  be  flushed. 

The  outlets  of  all  "  set  "  fixtures  except  water  closets 


Fig.  36. — Watts'  "  Asphyxiator  "  smoke-testing  machine. 

should  be  protected  against  obstruction  or  chokage 
by  a  fixed  strainer. 

The  plumbing  work  of  every  building,  as  soon  as 
completed,  should  be  tested  by  turning  on  the  water 
and  filling  all  traps.  The  final  test  is  made  either  by 


Fig.  37. — Burns  and  Baillie's  "  Eclipse  "  smoke-testing  machine. 

means  of  oil  of  peppermint  or  else  with  the  aid  of  a 
smoke-testing  machine. 

When  the  peppermint  test  is  applied  an  assistant 
goes  to  the  roof  and  pours  into  every  line  a  few 
ounces  of  the  pure  oil  of  peppermint.  This  should  be 
followed  with  some  hot  water,  so  as  to  volatilize  and 


IO2 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


diffuse  the  oil  through  the  pipe  system.  The  in- 
spector should  remain  in  the  house  and  as  soon  as  the 
pipe  system  has  been  filled  he  should  search  for  leaks 
or  escapes  along  all  lines  of  plumbing  pipes  and  at  all 
fixtures.  A  leak  is  readily  detected  by  the  pungent 
odor  of  the  oil. 

In  recent  years  the  smoke  test  has  come  into  use, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  preferable  to  the  oil  of  pepper- 
mint test,  because  the  smoke  is  forced  through  the 

pipe  system  under  some 
pressure,  and  is  therefore 
more  apt  to  reach  the  dis- 
tant branches.  It  has  also 
other  advantages,  among 
which  I  mention  that  it  is 
useful  in  discovering 
dangerous  bye-passes,  and 
that  it  enables  one  to  as- 
certain if  all  vent  pipes  at 
the  roof  are  free  and  un- 

Fig.  38.— American  smoke-testing  machine.         obstructed     b^    TUSt.         The 

free  circulation  of  smoke  through  the  pipes  indicates 
that  the  system  is  in  good  condition.  In  England  use 
is  made  of  rockets  to  generate  a  dense  smoke.  Port- 
able machines  are  also  manufactured  which  force  the 
smoke  into  the  pipes  either  by  means  of  rotary  fans  or 
by  bellows.  One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  smoke-test- 
ing machines  is  shown  in  Fig.  36  ;  this  is  the  Watts 
"  Asphyxiator,"  which  gives  satisfactory  results  in  the 
case  of  small  buildings.  A  better  machine  is  Burns 


DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERAGE    OF    BUILDINGS. 


103 


&  Baillie's  "Eclipse"  bellows  machine,  illustrated  in 
Fig.  37.  An  early  American  machine  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  38,  in  which  a  plunger  or  cylinder  is  worked 
up  and  down  to  force  the  smoke.  It  has  a  small  water 
gauge  to  prevent  the  application  of  too  much  pressure. 
Fig.  39  shows  the  Thomson  drain-testing  machine, 
which  contains  a  smoke  generator  and  a  set  of  double- 
acting  bellows,  made  of 
leather.  The  operation  of 
the  machine  is  as  followrs  : 
Water  is  first  poured  into 
the  space  around  the  fire 
box,  then  the  cover  is  lifted 
and  greasy  cotton  waste, 
tar  paper  and  oakum  are 
put  into  the  smoke  genera- 
tor and  ignited.  The  bel- 
lows are  now  operated  and 
force  a  dense  volume  of 


smoke  in  a  steady  stream 
into  the  pipes.  The 
machine  is  either  connected  at  the  fresh  air  inlet  or 
else  it  is  placed  on  the  roof  and  smoke  is  blown  in 
through  one  of  the  vent  pipes  on  the  roof.  As  soon 
as  the  smoke  appears  at  the  other  vent  openings  these 
are  tightly  closed  and  the  pumping  must  then  be  con- 
tinued gently,  while  search  is  made  in  the  building  for 
leaks. 

Still  another  American  smoke-testing  machine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  40.  This  is  a  very  powerful  machine 
and  is  specially  adapted  for  larger  buildings. 


Fig.  39. — Improved  American  smoke- 
testing  machine. 


104  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

The  testing  of  plumbing  work  is  referred   to   more 
A 


Fig.  40. — Large  American  smoke-testing  machine. 


in  detail  in  a  subsequent  chapter  of  this  book, 


IV. 

PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 

The  selection  of  proper  plumbing  fixtures  for  a 
building  is  a  matter  requiring  sound  judgment  and 
practical  experience.  It  is  always  mistaken  economy 
to  use  cheaper  and  inferior  articles  of  manufacture, 
for  such  fixtures  wear  out  much  sooner  than  the  good, 
although  more  costly  appliances,  and  often  require 
repairing  or  patching  up,  and  the  bills  for  the  latter 
work,  in  many  cases,  exceed  the  amount  of  the  first 
expenditure.  A  wise  householder  will  reduce  the 
number  of  plumbing  fixtures  in  his  house  to  a  mini- 
mum, but  will  choose  none  but  first-class  appliances. 

How  to  arrange  such  fixtures  properly,  where  to 
place  them  and  how  to  keep  them  sweet  and  clean 
when  in  use,  will  also  be  discussed.  I  will  *  first, 
briefly,  review  the  kind  of  fixtures  to  be  used,  but  will 
not  undertake  to  give  a  detailed  description  of  all 
appliances  at  present  in  the  market.  For  this  I  must 
refer  the  reader  to  the  many  excellent  catalogues  of 
modern  plumbing  appliances,  some  of  which  give 
very  artistic  illustrations  of  the  fixtures  which  may  be 
chosen  for  the  sanitary  work  of  buildings. 

Description  of  Plumbing  Fixtures. 

Cast  iron  kitchen  sinks  are  to  be  had  either  painted, 
galvanized  or  enameled.  Galvanized  and  enameled 


IO6  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

sinks  will  remain  good  looking  for  only  a  few  years, 
after  which  time  the  galvanizing  wears  out,  while  the 
enamel  scales  or  chips  off.  Plain  painted  sinks  re- 
quire frequent  renewal  of  the  paint  and  cannot  be 
recommended.  Soapstone  sinks  are  better,  but  they 
soon  assume  a  dark  color  and  a  greasy  appearance. 
Sinks  of  wrought  steel  have  lately  been  introduced 
into  the  market,  and  may  prove  to  be  economical  and 
not  easily  worn  out  if  protected  against  corrosion  by 
the  Bower-Barff  rustless  process.  The  neatest,  most 
cleanly  and  best  of  sinks  for  use  are  those  in  white 
glazed  earthenware,  made  in  all  required  sizes.  Their 
external  beauty — especially  if  put  in  a  light,  open 
frame,  with  a  marble  or  earthenware  back,  and  set  on 
a  tiled  floor — and  the  fact  that  they  are  non-absorbent, 
have  made  earthen  or  porcelain  sinks  the  general 
favorites  for  the  best  class  of  work  in  dwelling  houses, 
hospitals,  hotels  and  institutions  generally.  An 
equally  good  and  somewhat  less  costly  article  is  a 
sink  made  in  yellow  or  "colonial"  earthenware. 

All  kitchen  sinks  should  have  the  outlet  protected 
by  a  fixed  strainer  to  prevent  obstructions  of  the  waste 
pipe.  This  pipe  is  generally  made  i^  or  two  inches 
in  diameter,  which  size  is  ample  in  all  cases.  The 
waste  should  be  trapped  directly  underneath  the  sink 
by  an  efficient  trap.  As  kitchen  sinks  are  generally 
located  on  the  basement  floor,  an  overflow  pipe  is  un- 
necessary. For  sinks  in  small  households  I  advise 
against  the  use  of  any  grease  traps,  as  the  grease  may, 
with  advantage,  be  saved  instead  of  being  poured  out 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  JO/ 

into  the  sink.  For  large  mansions,  restaurant  kitchens, 
boarding  houses  and  institutions,  the  use  of  a  grease 
trap,  preferably  one  located  outside  of  the  house,  is 
recommended.  Grease  traps  inside  of  a  dwelling, 
under  or  near  a  pantry  or  kitchen  sink,  are  too  liable 
to  be  neglected  by  the  kitchen  servants,  and  in  most 
cases  become  cesspools  and  prove  a  serious  nuisance, 
unless  carefully  and  often  cleaned. 

The  neatest  material  for  laundry  tubs  is  glazed  por- 
celain, as  it  is  non-absorbent,  smooth  and  easily  kept 
clean.  Such  tubs  are,  of  course,  somewhat  expensive, 
and  for  this  reason  are  not  universally  used.  Yellow 
or  "colonial"  earthenware  tubs  are  nearly  as  service- 
able and  somewhat  cheaper.  Soapstone  tubs,  as  well 
as  cement  stone  tubs,  answer  the  purpose  well  enough, 
the  latter  kind  being  made  in  one  piece  without  seams. 
Both  kinds  are  infinitely  superior  to  wooden  laundry 
tubs.  Enameled  iron  washtubs  are  also  serviceable 
and  sanitary,  but  require  very  careful  handling  to 
prevent  the  chipping  off  of  the  enamel. 

The  waste  pipe  for  a  set  of  three  or  four  tubs  should 
be  i^  or  two  inches  diameter.  An  overflow  pipe  is 
not  necessary,  except  where  the  laundry  is  located  on 
the  upper  floors  of  a  building.  Theoretically,  each 
tub  should  have  a  separate  trap.  In  practice,  one 
part  is  generally  used  for  the  set  of  tubs,  placed  either 
at  one  end  of  the  set  or  under  the  middle  tub,  but  I 
prefer  in  all  cases  the  separate  trapping  of  each  tub, 
as  this  obviates  the  trouble  of  water  backing  up  from 
one  tub  into  the  adjoining  one. 


IO8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Pantry  sinks  are  usually  made  of  copper,  either 
with  oval-shaped  or  else  with  a  flat  bottom.  Small 
earthenware  sinks,  for  the  butler's  pantry,  which  are 
very  clean  and  attractive  in  appearance,  have  the 
drawback  that  glass  and  crockery  ware  are  more  ex- 
posed in  them  to  breakage.  The  finest  sinks  are  those 
made  of  German  silver  and  of  white  metal.  Copper 
sinks  are  usually  tinned,  and,  for  the  sake  of  durabil- 
ity, the  copper  must  have  a  weight  of  not  less  than  18 
ounces,  or  better,  24  ounces  per  square  foot.  The 
objection  against  them  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  tinning 
generally  wears  away  in  a  short  time.  It  is  therefore 
doubtful  if  plain  planished  red  copper  sinks  are  not  to 
be  preferred,  provided  they  are  kept  bright  and 
polished. 

The  waste  outlet  of  pantry  sinks  is  frequently 
closed  by  a  plated  plug  or  stopper,  but  sometimes  the 
waste  pipe  is  closed  by  a  waste  valve.  In  both  cases 
an  overflow  pipe  is  used,  connected  to  the  waste  pipe 
below  the  water  seal  of  the  trap.  Better  than  either 
arrangement  is  the  short  standing  overflow,  which  is 
inserted  into  the  socket  of  the  waste  pipe  and  does 
away  with  a  possible  nuisance  caused  by  the  separate 
overflow  pipe.  In  order  to  prevent  the  standing  waste 
from  being  in  the  way  while  washing  dishes,  I  sug- 
gested years  ago  to  have  the  pantry  sink  flat-bottomed, 
with  a  slight  slope  toward  the  outlet,  and  made  with 
a  recess  for  the  standing  waste.  Such  sinks  are  now 
readily  obtainable  from  coppersmiths.  The  waste  pipe 
for  the  sink  should  be  not  larger  than  two  inches 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  1<X) 

(i|  inch  is  preferable)  and  the  trap  should  be  of  the 
same  size.  Pantry  sinks  in  hotels  or  large  establish- 
ments should  have  a  grease  trap  to  intercept  the  fat 
due  to  the  washing  of  dishes  and  plates. 

Refrigerators  should  not  have  waste  pipes  con- 
nected directly  with  any  drain  or  sewer.  Those  of 
smaller  size  may  waste  into  pails,  removable  by  hand. 
Larger  sizes  should  waste  into  an  open  cup  or  tray, 
or  into  a  sink  connected  with  a  drain  or  soil  pipe  by 
a  trapped  waste  pipe,  and  provided  with  a  tight-shut- 
ting stop  cock  on  the  line  of  the  waste  pipe,  which 
must  be  closed  when  the  refrigerator  is  put  out  of  use. 

Stationary  washstands  have  been  extensively  used, 
not  only  in  bathrooms  or  lavatories,  but  in  sleeping 
rooms,  in  nurseries,  in  hospital  wards  and  in  offices. 
Being  in  many  instances  defective  in  construction  and 
general  arrangement,  they  have  become  the  cause  of 
complaints,  of  headaches,  general  debility,  sickness  or 
even  of  fatal  illness.  Since  the  public  has  become  aware 
of  the  dangers  and  risks  connected  with  cheap  or  dis- 
honest plumbing  work  a  great  outcry  has  been  raised 
against  stationary  washbowls.  In  fact,  much  of  the 
sickness  due  to  imperfect  drainage  in  general  has  been 
attributed  to  this  one  fixture.  This  view,  however,  is 
erroneous,  for  any  kind  of  plumbing  appliance  not 
properly  trapped  and  ventilated  is  a  danger  and  risk 
to  health,  if  placed  in  a  living  or  sleeping  room  or 
office,  or  in  unventilated  closets.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  a  washbowl  might  not 
be  fitted  up  in  as  perfect  a  manner  as  a  water  closet, 


IIO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

a  sink  or  a  bath  tub,  if  placed  in  a  well-ventilated  batb 
or  dressing  room. 

Wash  basins  are  made  of  copper,  of  enameled  or 
galvanized  iron  and  of  earthenware  and  fine  china. 
The  usual  kinds  are  glazed  earthen  and  porcelain 
bowls.  The  shape  of  basins  is  either  round  or  oval, 
and  occasionally  square.  Oval  washbowls  were 
introduced  some  years  ago,  and  are  now  preferred  by 
most  people  as  being  of  a  more  convenient  shape.  As 
commonly  fitted  up,  washbowls  have  on  their  bottom 
a  socket  and  coupling,  to  which  the  waste  pipe  is 
attached.  The  outlet  of  the  bowl  is  closed  so  as  to 
hold  water,  by  means  of  a  plug  inserted  into  the 
socket.  The  bowl  in  this  case  requires  an  overflow 
pipe.  This  necessarily  remains  imperfectly  flushed, 
and  is,  therefore,  often  ill-smelling. 

Bowls  are  also  made  with  a  flushing  rim  at  the  top, 
the  hot  and  cold  water  being  introduced  by  means  of 
a  nozzle  and  entering  the  bowl  simultaneously  at  all 
sides,  which  gives  to  the  basin  a  thorough  cleansing. 
This  is  an  improvement  which  recommends  itself  at 
once  for  lavatories  in  hotels,  hospitals,  barracks  and 
club  houses. 

If  not  closed  at  the  bottom  by  a  plug,  washbowls 
are  fitted  up  with  waste  valves  and  secret  overflows, 
which  in  most  cases  take  the  place  of  the  objection- 
able lead  overflow  pipe,  while  in  a  few  of  them  the 
ordinary  overflow  is  used. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  convenience  of 
waste  valves  as  compared  with  the  chain  and  plug 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  I  I  T 

arrangement.  With  only  few  exceptions,  however, 
these  waste  valves  close  the  basin  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  outlet  of  the  bowl,  and  foul  matter,  left  from 
previous  use  of  the  fixture,  may  mingle  with  clean 
water  when  such  is  drawn,  which  is  anything  but 
agreeable.  Some  of  the  plugs  will  close  imperfectly 
if  hair  or  lint  catches  at  the  seat,  and  in  such  case  it  is 
impossible  to  hold  water  in  the  bowl,  to  the  great  an- 
noyance of  the  person  intending  to  use  it.  Although 
the  valve  chambers  are  sometimes  made  accessible 
for  cleaning  purposes,  the  latter  operation  is  usually 
neglected.  Foul  slime  gradually  accumulates  in  the 
valve  chamber,  the  putrefaction  of  which  soon  causes 
annoying  odors. 

Tip-up  lavatories  have  been  used  for  many  years, 
particularly  in  England,  and  are  doubtless  very  con- 
venient. They  do  away  with  the  objectionable  chain 
and  plug,  and,  at  the  same  time,  dispense  with  the 
overflow  pipes  altogether.  The  only  criticism  that 
can  be  raised  against  them  is  the  possibility  of  the 
lower  bowl  becoming  foul.  This  objection  has  been 
overcome  recently  by  arranging  the  upper  bowl  so 
that  it  may  be  easily  lifted  and  removed,  and  by 
making  the  lower  bowl  or  receiver  quick-emptying. 
Even  then  the  cleanliness  of  such  apparatus  depends, 
obviously,  upon  the  care  and  conscientiousness  of  the 
servants. 

Another  form  of  bowl  is  the  recessed  bowl,  writh 
outlet  in  the  back,  closed  by  a  standing  overflow. 
These  stand-pipe  basins  are  excellent  from  a  sanitary 


112  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

point  of  view,  and  do  away  with  the  concealed  over- 
flow pipe. 

More  recent  forms  of  basins  have  a  plug  of  metal 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  operated  by  a  lever  mech- 
anism, which  arrangement  is  both  convenient  in  use 
and  sanitary. 

The  waste  pipe  for  washbowls  need  not  be  larger 
than  i^  inches  diameter,  except  possibly  in  the  rare 
cases,  where  the  pressure  of  water  in  the  supply  pipes 
is  very  large,  furnishing  a  heavy  stream  of  water.  In 
this  case  the  waste  pipe  must  be  made  large  enough 
to  remove  all  water  without  danger  of  an  overflow. 

Bath  tubs  are  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and  of 
different  materials.  The  best  and  neatest  non-absorb- 
ent bath  tubs  are  those  of  porcelain  or  heavy  earthen- 
ware. Their  great  cost,  and  the  heavy  weight  of  the 
tubs,  offer  obstacles  to  the  more  general  introduction 
in  dwellings  other  than  those  of  the  wealthy.  They 
are  well  adapted  for  use  in  hospitals  and  in  public 
bathing  houses.  In  this  country  the  majority  of  bath 
tubs  of  moderate  cost  are  made  by  lining  a  wooden 
box,  blocked  out  to  desired  shape,  with  tinned  and 
planished  copper,  weighing  from  10  to  24  ounces  per 
square  foot.  Such  tubs  are  very  good,  except  that 
they  require,  for  appearance's  sake,  a  casing  of  wood- 
work, which,  for  sanitary  reasons,  should  be  done 
away  with  as  much  as  possible. 

Iron  bath  tubs,  lined  with  a  porcelain  enamel,  are 
made  to  stand  free  on  the  floor  on  legs.  They  are  a 
very  satisfactory  article,  the  only  objection  to  their 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  113 

use  being  the  breaking  off  of  the  enamel.  In  Europe 
bath  tubs  are  made  of  metal  (zinc  and  copper)  suffi- 
ciently heavy  to  stand  without  wooden  framing  or 
lining.  Sometimes  tubs  are  made  of  slate  or  marble 
slabs,  cemented  together.  In  this  case  it  is  preferable, 
for  convenience's  sake,  to  lower  the  tub  one  or  more 
steps,  which  arrangement  is  at  times  adopted  for  pri- 
vate houses. 

The  usual  bath  tubs  in  American  dwellings  have 
the  waste  closed  at  or  near  the  bottom  by  a  plug  with 
a  chain.  The  better  tubs  have  either  a  waste  cock  or 
a  valve,  and  a  common  overflow  pipe  or  a  channel  in 
the  waste  valve  for  such  overflow  is  required — both 
of  which  are  objectionable  for  well-known  reasons. 
Of  such  waste  valves  for  bath  tubs  there  are  a  large 
number,  but  the  comments  made  above  in  regard  to 
basin  wastes  are  more  or  less  true  of  these  wastes. 

I  decidedly  prefer  the  arrangement  knowrn  as  the 
standing  waste.  It  does  a\vay  \vith  the  chain  and 
plug,  the  waste  valve  and  the  overflow  pipe,  and  is 
most  cleanly,  simple  in  operation  and  sanitary,  The 
bath  tub,  if  copper  lined,  can  easily  be  arranged  with  * 
a  recess  at  the  foot  of  the  tub  for  the  standing  waste. 
In  order  to  empty  quickly,  and  thereby  flush  the 
waste  and  trap,  bath  tubs  should  have  a  two-inch 
waste  and  trap. 

Housemaids'  sinks  are  neatest  if  made  of  earthen- 
ware ;  the  same  is  true  of  slop  sinks,  which  are  often 
fitted  up  in  dwellings  to  empty  chamber  slops.  The 
latter  kind  of  sink  is  generally  much  deeper  than  the 


I  14  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ordinary  sink,  and  sometimes  it  is  shaped  like  a  hop- 
per, with  a  flat  square  top  provided  with  a  flushing 
rim.  The  less  surface  a  hopper  or  sink  has  exposed 
to  fouling  the  better,  therefore  the  top  should  be  kept 
of  moderate  size  and  not  unnecessarily  enlarged.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  these  sinks  and  slop 
hoppers  should  be  flushed  out  after  use,  and  to  do 
this  efficiently  I  always  recommend  to  fix  over  the 
sink  or  hopper  a  flushing  cistern,  operated  by  a  chain 
and  pull.  The  outlet  of  sinks  and  slop  hoppers  should 
be  protected  by  strong  strainers  to  prevent  the  throw- 
ing in  of  objectionable  solid  articles,  such  as  brushes, 
rags,  etc.,  which  remain  in  the  trap  or  choke  the 
waste  pipe.  If  an  S-trap  is  used  under  the  slop  sink, 
it  must  be  efficiently  protected  by  a  large  branch  air 
pipe  taken  out  near  the  crown  of  the  trap,  for,  if  a 
pail  of  slops  is  suddenly  poured  into  a  slop  hopper, 
the  trap  would  otherwise  lose  its  water  seal  by  self- 
siphonage. 

Urinals  should  not  be  fitted  up  in  private  houses. 
It  is  a  most  difficult  matter  to  keep  them  clean  and 
neat.  Water  closets  should  be  fixed  with  as  little 
woodwork  as  possible,  and  may  then  be  used  as  uri- 
nals. The  latter  fixtures  are  necessary  only  in  public 
buildings,  public  places  and  in  office  buildings.  The 
neatest  fixture  for  such  use  is  the  porcelain  lipped 
''Bedfordshire"  urinal.  There  is  now  for  sale  a  pat- 
tern in  which  the  basin  is  so  shaped  as  to  hold  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  water.  This  type  of  siphon  urinal  is 
preferable  to  the  old-fashioned  style,  as  an  immediate 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  115 

dilution  of  the  urine  takes  place.  Urinals  in  office  or 
public  buildings  should  always  be  flushed  from  special 
tanks,  which  may  be  either  siphon  or  valve  cisterns, 
operated  by  hand,  or  by  treadle  or  door  action,  or  else 
one  of  the  many  automatic  flush  tanks.  To  flush 
the  urinals  from  a  small  supply  pipe  with  self-closing 
bibb,  which  must  be  opened  by  the  person  using  the 
urinal,  is  objectionable  in  all  cases,  and  absolutely  in- 
admissible in  the  best  kind  of  work.  A  flushing  tank, 
operated  by  chain  and  pull,  may  be  used  for  toilet 
rooms  of  private  offices,  where  intelligent  attention  to 
the  required  flushing  may  be  expected  ;  in  all  other 
cases  an  automatic  supply  is  preferable. 

The  waste  from  a  single  urinal  need  not  be  larger 
than  i\  inches  ;  for  a  row  of  urinals  a  two-inch  pipe 
is  required.  The  trap  should,  in  any  case,  be  as  small 
as  possible — about  i^  inches — so  as  to  have  its  con- 
tents thoroughly  changed  at  each  flush. 

The  most  important  plumbing  fixture  in  a  building 
is  the  water  closet.  A  proper  and  satisfactory  selec- 
tion of  this  fixture  is  rendered  very  difficult  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  number  of  types  and  makes  of 
water  closets  which  are  now  for  sale.  Wherever 
advice  is  sought  by  prudent  householders  on  "sani- 
tary drainage,"  no  question  is  probably  put  as  often 
as  this  :  Which  is  the  best  water  closet  ?  or,  What 
water  closet  would  you  recommend  me  to  use  ? 

Without  going  into  a  detailed  description  of  the 
various  water  closets  in  use,  I  will  endeavor  briefly  to 
answer  this  question.  Generally  speaking,  water 
closets  mav  be  divided  into  two  distinct  classes,  viz.: 


Il6  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

1 .  Those  with  mechanical  parts  or  movable  machin- 
ery— the  pan  closet,  the  valve  closet  and  the  plunger 
closet. 

2.  Those    without    any    movable    machinery — the 
hopper   closet,    the    washout    closet,    the    washdown 
closet,  the  siphon-jet  and  siphon  closets.* 

The  pan  closet  has  been  described  and  condemned, 
and  the  defects  of  the  valve  closet  and  the  plunger 
closet  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "  De- 
fective Plumbing  and  Sewer  Gas." 

Guided  by  practical  experience,  the  author  always 
advises  against  the  use  of  closets  with  movable  parts, 
for  all  such  fixtures  are  complicated,  easily  deranged 
and  readily  fouled.  While  admitting  that  some  of 
the  closets  of  this  description  are  manufactured  in  a 
first-class  manner,  the  writer  has  never  considered 
them  fit  for  use  for  sanitary  reasons. 

Only  closets  belonging  to  the  second  class  should 
be  used  in  sanitary  homes.  These  have  all  the 
machinery  for  operating  the  closet  located  in-  the 
flushing  cistern,  which  is  fixed  at  a  proper  height 

*  For  a  detailed  description  of  water  closets,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  follow- 
ing works: 

Prof.  T.  M.  Clark's  articles  on  "  Modern  Plumbing,"  in  the  American  Architect. 

Prof.  T.  M.  Clark's  book  on  "Building  Superintendence." 

Mr.  Glenn  Brown's  articles  on  "  Water  Closets,"  in  the  American  Architect. 

Papers  by  I.  P.  Putnam  on  "  Sanitary  Plumbing,"  in  the  American  Architect. 

W.  P.  Gerhard's  paper  on  "  House  Drainage  and  Sanitary   Plumbing,"  in  the 
Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Rhode  Island  State  Board  of  Health. 

W.  P.  Gerhard,  "House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing,"  yth  edition,  pub- 
lished by  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  1898. 

Many  excellent  forms  of  modern  water  closet  apparatus  are  illustrated  in  the 
catalogues  of  the  principal  firms  dealing  in  sanitary  specialties.  It  is,  therefore, 
considered  superfluous  to  give  in  this  volume  any  particular  illustratu  ns. 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  117 

above  the  water  closet  bowl.  The  water  closet  con* 
sists  merely  of  a  plain  bowl  having  on  its  top  part 
a  flushing  rim.  Water  is  conveyed  from  the  over- 
head tank  to  the  flushing  rim  by  a  large  flush  pipe. 
As  a  rule  the  entire  bowl  is  made  of  glazed  porcelain 
or  of  vitreous  ware,  but  some  of  the  cheaper  flushing 
rim  closets  are  made  of  porcelain-lined  iron. 

Hopper  closets  may  be  subdivided  into  long  and 
short  hoppers.  The  former  have  a  trap  (of  iron  or 
lead)  below  the  floor,  while  the  short  hoppers  have 
the  trap  (of  iron  or  earthenware)  above  the  floor.  As 
a  rule  the  latter  are  preferable,  for  the  surface  exposed 
to  fouling  is  much  smaller  than  with  long  hoppers  ; 
the  trap  is  in  sight,  which  is  a  great  advantage ; 
finally  the  level  of  the  water  (in  the  trap)  is  nearer  to 
the  seat. 

Unless  fitted  up  with  skillful  judgment,  hopper 
closets,  both  short  and  long,  are  apt  to  cause  dissatis- 
faction through  an  occasional  fouling  of  the-  bowl. 
Without  a  properly  arranged  and  abundant  system 
of  flushing  they  may  become  extremely  foul,  espe- 
cially so  in  water  closet  apartments  of  public  buildings. 
To  prevent  this  the  water  supply  should  be  ample,  the 
proper  amount  at  each  flushing  operation  should 
be  discharged  rapidly  through  a  large  flush  pipe  and 
a  good  flushing  rim.  The  further  precaution  must  be 
observed  of  giving  the  closet  at  each  use  a  prelimi- 
nary wash,  to  moisten  the  sides  of  the  bowl,  and  like- 
wise an  after-wash,  to  thoroughly  rinse  the  closet  and 
expel  the  soil  from  the  trap. 


Il8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

A  modified  form  of  closet  bowl,  generally  know 
as  the  "wash-out  closet,"  was  designed  to  secure  in 
plain  closets  without  mechanical  apparatus  the  ad- 
vantage which  the  valve  and  plunger-closets  have  of 
holding  a  large  surface  of  water  in  the  bowl. 
Against  the  wash-out  closets  the  criticism  must  be 
raised  that  the  force  of  the  flush  is  largely  spent  in 
cleansing  the  basin,  after  which  the  water,  soil  and 
paper  drop  into  the  trap  and  are  likely  to  remain 
there  until  the  next  use  of  the  closet.  The  trap  is 
not  exposed  to  view  as  in  other  closets.  There  is, 
consequently,  a  chance  for  foul  matters  to  lodge  in 
the  trap  and  to  give  off  offensive  gases.  There  is  also 
some  danger  of  foul  matter  accumulating  by  degrees 
in  the  vertical  shaft  between  the  bowl  and  the  trap, 
unless  this  portion  of  the  bowl  is  cleansed  writh  par- 
ticular care. 

Another  type  of  closet  has  the  basin  so  shaped  as 
to  form  a  trap.  According  to  shape  and  construction 
such  fixtures  are  called  either  wash-down  closets,  or 
siphon  and  siphon-jet  closets.  Closets  in  which  the 
basin  itself  forms  a  trap  against  gases  are  preferable. 
They  much  resemble  in  principle  the  short  hopper, 
having  the  advantage  of  being  made  in  one  piece  of 
earthenware,  of  holding  more  depth  of  water  in  the 
bowl  and  of  having  a  large  surface  of  water.  These 
closets,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  approach  the  ideal 
closets  more  closely  than  any  other  kind.  One  diffi- 
culty has  so  far  been  but  partially  overcome  in  most 
of  them,  namely,  the  proper  flushing  and  cleansing  of 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  I  IQ 

the  basin,  and  especially  the  proper  discharge  of  soil 
and  paper.  Ingenious  siphon  arrangements  and  water 
jets  have  been  invented  to  effect  this  purpose.  It  is 
quite  possible,  however,  that  a  simple  discharge  of 
water  from  a  cistern  through  a  good  flushing  rim  or 
a  series  of  fan  washers,  arranged  on  the  top  of  the 
bowl,  will  suffice  to  expel  all  matters  from  the  basin, 
if  the  latter  is  made  of  the  proper  size  and  shape. 

Such  are,  briefly  described,  the  leading  types  of  \vater 
closets  now  in  the  market.  There  is  a  striking  contrast, 
as  regards  simplicity  of  construction,  between  the 
pan,  valve  or  plunger  closets  on  the  one  side  and  the 
hopper  and  wash-out  closets,  wash-down  and  siphon 
closets  on  the  other.  Any  of  the  closets  of  the  latter 
class,  if  bought  from  a  responsible,  first-class  manu- 
facturing firm,  are  likely  to  give  satisfaction,  provided 
they  are  well  taken  care  of,  for  even  the  best  kind  of 
fixture  will  need  repeated  cleaning,  washing  and 
scrubbing.  The  latter  operations  will  be  much  facili- 
tated by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  closet,  and  here 
again  the  plain  earthen  hoppers  and  wash-down 
closets  are  vastly  superior  to  mechanical  closets. 

The  ideal  water  closet,  however,  has  yet  to  be 
invented,  and,  as  in  many  other  matters,  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  the  best  approximation  to  the 
perfect  apparatus. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  principles  of  the 
construction  of  water  closets  were  propounded  in  a 
report  of  the  general  Board  of  Health  of  England, 
made  as  early  as  1852,  in  the  following  requirements: 


120  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  particular  points  to  be  sought  for  in  the  construction  of  the 
apparatus  in  question  appear  to  be — 

1.  'A  scour  for  the  complete  removal  of  the  soil. 

2.  The  best  trap  against  the  ingress  or  regurgitation   of   effluvia 
from  the  general  system  of  drainage   and  sewerage  with  which  each 
soil  pan  must  communicate. 

3.  The  consumption  of  the  least  quantity  of  water  for  a  complete 
scour  and  perfect  trap. 

4.  Durability  or  freedom  from  the  liability  of— 

a.  Breakage  in  consequence  of  frost. 

b.  Derangement  of  the  machinery. 

c.  Breakage  by  careless  usage. 

d.  Stoppages. 

5.  Easy  repair. 

6.  Cheapness  when  manufactured  on  a  large  scale.* 

In  this  report  the  pan  closet  was  condemned  and 
simple  hopper  closets,  preferably  short  hoppers,  or  a 
simple  form  of  wash-down  closet  were  recommended 
for  use.  It  is  a  somewhat  remarkable  fact  that,  not- 
withstanding this  severe  but  just  condemnation  of 
the  pan  closet  issued  more  than  forty  years  ago,  it 
should  still  be  found  in  some  dwelling  houses  at  this 
date. 

General  Arrangement  of  Plumbing  Fixtures. 

I  must  now  say  a  few  words  on  the  general  ar- 
rangement and  care  of  plumbing  fixtures.  I  have  re- 
peatedly stated  that  it  is  highly  desirable  to  have 
everything  relating  to  the  plumbing  in  plain  sight. 
Thus,  traps  concealed  under  floors  should  be  abol- 
ished ;  soil  and  vent  pipes  buried  in  walls  or  parti- 
tions, fixtures  encased  in  tight  carpentry,  and  supply 
pipes  with  stop  cocks  that  cannot  be  immediately 


*  To  this  may  be  added,  as  another  desideratum,  noiseless  in  operation. 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.      •  >•  121 

reached  when  necessary,  are  objectionable  for  reasons 
which  I  need  not  dwell  upon  further. 

Some  prejudice  against  having  plumbing  appli- 
ances left  without  any  casing  or  covering,  especially 
on  the  part  of  women,  had  at  first  to  be  overcome, 
but  good  housewives  have  been  gradually  educated 
in  these  matters.  All  those  to  whom  the  drawbacks 
of  the  old  methods  are  properly  explained,  approve 
now  the  advice  of  sanitarians  of  having  every  fixture 
open  and  accessible.  If  all  women  would  be  as  prac- 
tical and  exhibit  as  much  good  sense  as  Jill  in  Mr.  E. 
C.  Gardner's  charming  book,  "The  House  that  Jack 
Built,"  sanitary  inspections  would  soon  be  rendered 
unnecessary,  and  the  annual  plumbers'  bills  for  re- 
pairs would  become  a  thing  of  the  past. 

I  wish  it  were  possible — she  said — to  build  a  house  with  every- 
thing in  plain  sight,  the  chimneys,  the  hot-air  pipes  from  the  furnace, 
if  there  are  any,  the  steam  pipes,  the  ventilators,  the  gas  pipes,  the 
water  pipes,  the  speaking  tubes,  the  cranks  and  wires  for  the  bells — 
whatever  really  belongs  to  the  building.  They  might  all  be  deco- 
rated if  that  would  make  them  more  interesting,  but  even  if  they 
were  quite  unadorned  they  ought  not  to  be  ugly.  If  we  could  see 
them  we  shouldn't  feel  that  we  are  surrounded  by  hidden  mysteries 
liable  at  any  time  to  explode  or  break  loose  upon  us  unawares. 
Those  things  that  get  out  of  order  easily  ought  surely  to  be  accessi- 
ble. I  don't  believe  there  would  have  been  half  the  trouble  with 
plumbing,  either  in  the  way  of  danger  to  health  or  from  dishonest 
and  ignorant  work,  if  it  had  not  been  the  custom  to  keep  it  as  much 
as  possible  out  of  sight.  There  is  a  great  satisfaction,  too,  in  know- 
ing that  everything  is  genuine. 

The  following  advice  of  a  physician  in  a  book  en- 
titled "The  House  and  its  Surroundings,"  is  equally 
to  the  point : 


122  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

As  to  the  pipes  above  the  basement,  you  should  insist  upon  hav- 
ing them  all,  within  as  well  as  without  the  house,  as  accessible  as 
possible.  Plumbers,  'try  to  conceal  everything,'  and,  in  consequence 
of  this  principle,  when  any  accident  occurs,  the  house  is  pulled 
about  and  the  walls  and  woodwork  damaged  to  a  great  extent,  be- 
cause no  one  knows  or  can  get  at  the  exact  direction  of  the  offend- 
ing pipe.  Therefore,  all  these  pipes,  including  their  inlets  and  out- 
lets, should  be  visible,  or,  if  enclosed  at  all,  should  be  cased  in  with 
wooden  coverings,  lightly  screwed  together,  and  not,  as  is  usually  the 
case,  imbedded  in  plaster  or  cement,  or  otherwise  fixed  securely  into 
the  main  or  other  walls  of  the  building. 

The  following  quotation  from  the  well-known 
English  architect,  Ernest  Turner,  referring  to  service 
pipes,  might  be  applied  in  general  to  plumbing  work, 
lie  says : 

Service  pipes  are  commonly  kept  carefully  out  of  sight.  This  is 
an  excellent  arrangement — for  the  plumber — who  is  thus  enabled  to 
conceal  any  amount  of  scamped  work.  For  the  owner,  its  draw- 
backs are  three,  at  least. 

1.  It  makes  defects  or  accidents  more  difficult  of  detection. 

2.  It  makes  them  more  mischievous  in  action. 

3.  It  makes  them  more  costly  in  correction. 

No  pipes  above  ground,  as  was  said  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
should  be  hidden  behind  anything  but  a  hinged  casing. 

It  is  an  axiom  of  modern  drainage  work  that  there 
should  be  as  little  woodwork  as  possible  around 
plumbing  fixtures.  This  does  not  at  all  detract  from 
the  appearance  of  such  work,  provided  the  work  itself 
is  properly  done  and  well  finished.  If  the  space  un- 
der and  around  bowls,  sinks,  tubs  and  water  clos- 
ets is  kept  entirely  open,  cleaning  operations  are 
much  facilitated,  and  everything  is  at  all  times  read- 
ily inspected  without  the  necessity  of  using  tools  to 
remove  boards  or  casings.  An  open  arrangement  of 
fixtures  is  equally  well  adapted  to  offices,  to  small 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  I  23 

dwellings,  to  the  most  luxurious  residences  and  to 
plumbing  in  public  institutions.  Fancy  and  ornamen- 
tal casings  of  woodwork  have  hitherto  been  consid^ 
ered  indispensable  for  finishing  bathrooms.  The  mis- 
taken notion  of  judging  the  quality  of  a  job  of  plumb- 
ing by  the  costliness  of  the  marble  slabs,  the  silver 
plating  of  the  faucets,  the  decorating  and  gilding  of 
basin  and  water  closet  bowls,  the  expensive  hard 
wood  finish,  has  gradually  given  way  to  a  better  ap- 
preciation for  fixtures  which  are  properly  trapped, 
amply  ventilated  and  well  flushed.  Open  plumbing 
work  need  not  necessarily  be  done  with  nickel-plated 
piping,  which  must  be  kept  bright  and  polished,  and 
involves  a  good  deal  of  hand  labor.  An  equally 
sanitary  job  can  be  had  with  painted  or  bronzed 
lead  or  iron  piping. 

Kitchen  sinks  may  be  supported  on  brackets,  se- 
curely fastened  into  the  walls,  or  else  they  may  rest 
on  legs  set  on  the  floor.  If  not  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  expense,  the  supply  and  waste  pipes  and  the 
traps  may  be  of  plain  polished  or  nickel-plated  brass, 
but  a  plain,  neat  job  of  lead  piping  will  answer  very 
well.  The  neatest  arrangement  is  to  have  the  floor 
under  the  sink — or  else  the  entire  kitchen  floor — laid 
with  tiles,  which  may  also  be  carried  up  along  the 
wall  behind  the  sink.  The  sink  should  always  be 
fitted  with  a  high  back  of  iron,  glass,  porcelain,  slate 
or  marble,  to  prevent  defacing  the  rear  wall  by 
splashing. 

A  pantry  sink  may  be  fitted  up  in  a  similar  man- 


124  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ner,  with  draining  shelf  above  and  drawers  below  at 
one  or  both  sides  of  the  sink,  but  kept  entirely  open 
directly  under  the  sink. 

Housemaids'  sinks  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  Still  more  important  is  such  a  plain  arrange- 
ment for  slop  sinks,  which  are  otherwise  liable  to  get 
very  foul  and  offensive.  It  is  preferable  to  have  no> 
woodwork  whatever  around  a  slop  hopper,  everything 
being  left  in  plain  sight,  open  to  inspection,  access- 
ible for  cleaning  and  scrubbing.  Slop  sinks  and  hop- 
pers should  stand  in  a  well-lighted  and  ventilated 
closet,  or  else,  where  the  bathroom  is  of  ample  dimen- 
sions, in  the  bathroom.  They  should  never  be  placed 
in  a  dark  closet. 

Laundry  tubs  should  likewise  be  set  on  legs  and  be 
left  open  under  the  tubs,  leaving  the  waste  pipe  and 
trap  in  full  sight.  The  beautiful  porcelain  washtubs 
are  set  on  ornamental  legs,  either  with  a  top  frame 
of  hard  wood  or  without  any  wood  at  all,  and  with 
backs  which  may  be  of  porcelain  or  marble,  and 
through  which  the  faucets  for  hot  and  cold  water  pass. 
Roll  rim  tubs,  requiring  no  wooden  framework,  have 
recently  been  introduced,  and  such  tubs  are  un- 
doubtedly the  best  from  a  practical  and  sanitary 
standpoint.  Tiling  for  the  floor  of  the  laundry  adds 
to  its  beauty  and  cleanly  appearance. 

The  same  principles  should  be  applied  to  station- 
ary wash  basins.  The  marble  slab  should  be  sup- 
ported on  ornamental  iron  or  brass  brackets,  fastened 
to  the  walls,  instead  of  having  the  usual  cabinet  work, 


PLUiJBING    FIXTURES.  125 

or  else  a  pair  of  marble  supports,  or  a  handsome  brass 
frame  may  be  designed  on  which  the  slab  rests.  The 
slab  may  also  be  supported  by  wooden  turned  legs  or 
by  bronzed  or  otherwise  decorated  iron  or  brass  legs. 
If  desired,  the  trap  may  be  of  brass,  finished  or  nickel- 
plated,  and  the  supply  and  waste  pipes  may  have  the 
same  finish,  or  the  lead  or  brass  piping  may  be 
finished  in  enamel  paint  or  in  aluminum  bronze.  The 
space  under  the  slab  and  bowl  should  be  left  entirely 
open  and  the  pipes  exposed.  Set  on  a  hard  wood  or 
tiled  floor,  such  a  lavatory  is  certainly  more  cleanly 
and  inviting  in  appearance  than  the  apparatus 
formerly  in  use  in  houses.  Where  it  is  desired  to 
leave  all  plumbing  in  sight,  and  where  means  are 
moderate,  a  handsome  lead  pipe  job  with  well-shaped 
wiped  joints  is  not  at  all  objectionable.  Says  Mr. 
James  C.  Bayles,  in  describing  an  ideal  house : 

None  of  my  fixtures  are  boxed  in.  I  prefer  to  have  everything 
open  and  not  to  make  little  closets  under  the  fixtures.  To  my  mind 
there  is  nothing  unsightly  about  neat  pipes  with  cleanly  wiped  joints. 
I  like  to  look  at  them  when  everything  is  as  it  should  be.  Besides, 
I  know  that  these  little  closets  are  nothing  but  poke-holes  for  old 
shoes,  dirty  cloths,  musty  wooden  pails  and  other  bric-a-brac  which 
properly  belong  in  the  ash  barrel.  The  only  way  to  prevent  such 
accumulations  is  to  have  no  place  where  they  can  accumulate.  I  let 
the  plumbers  who  did  my  work  know  that  nothing  was  to  be  covered, 
and  that  all  the  woodwork  I  should  have  about  the  basins  and  closets 
was  just  what  was  needed  to  hold  up  the  slabs  and  seats.  They 
could  not  understand  why  I  fancied  such  an  arrangement,  but  find- 
Ing  that  I  had  made  up  my  mind  to  do  as  I  said,  they  did  their  work 
with  extra  neatness,  and  when  they  had  it  finished  I  believe  it  gave 
them  a  positive  pleasure  to  look  at  it. 

It    has    been    quite    customary    in    Europe,   where 


126  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

heavy  copper  tubs  are  used,  to  set  bathtubs  of  all  kinds 
in  an  open  manner.  The  American  copper-lined 
tubs  required  some  exterior  finish  in  woodwork,  but 
the  more  modern  enameled  iron  bathtubs,  as  well  as 
those  of  earthenware,  dispense  with  woodwork 
altogether. 

For  no  other  fixture,  however,  is  the  open  arrange- 
ment as  important  as  for  water  closets.  These  should 
have  no  other  woodwork  but  the  seat ;  a  riser  in  front 
of  the  seat  should  always  be  dispensed  with.  Even 
closets  with  machinery,  consisting  of  an  iron  body 
and  earthen  bowl,  have  nothing  objectionable  in  ap- 
pearance if  fitted  up  in  this  manner. 

Modern  sanitary  water  closets — all  earthenware 
bowls  without  any  movable  parts — look  best  if  set  on 
a  floor  of  white  tiles,  or  on  a  marble  platform,  the 
back  and  sides  of  the  closet  being  similarly  tiled,  and 
often  having  a  dado  of  ornamental  or  colored  tiles. 
The  seat  of  the  closet  is  formed  of  a  square  or  round 
board  of  ash,  oak,  cherry  or  mahogany,  well  finished 
and  polished,  hinged  at  one  end  or  at  the  back,  so  that 
it  may  be  turned  up  when  not  in  use.  There  is  no 
necessity  for  any  further  cover,  and,  arranged  in  this 
way,  hopper  or  washout  closets  may  well  take  the 
place  of  slop  sinks  and  urinals.  A  similar  and  still 
better  arrangement  consists  in  having  the  seat  at- 
tached directly  to  the  closet  bowl. 

In  regard  to  this,  we  find  in  a  recent  volume,  "  Our 
Homes,  and  How  to  Make  Them  Healthy,"  the  fol- 
lowing advice : 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  12J 

Another  point  deserving  of  consideration  by  every  one  about  to 
fix  a  new  water  closet  apparatus,  is  the  arrangement  of  the  seat  and 
the  enclosure  of  the  apparatus.  The  apparatus  is  usually  fixed  and 
enclosed,  so  that  in  course  of  time  a  vast  amount  of  dust  and  dirt 
accumulates  beneath  the  seat,  or,  indeed  may  have  been  left  there  by 
the  workmen  when  the  closet  was  built;  and  where  the  closet  is  used 
for  emptying  slops  of  any  kind,  it  commonly  happens  that  small 
quantities  of  liquid  are  allowed  to  splash  on  the  top  of  the  basin — 
not  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  run  away,  but  to  keep  a  certain  amount  of 
permanent  dampness  on  the  floor  of  the  space  beneath  the  seat,  and 
to  give  to  the  entire  closet  a  constant  smell.  It  would  go  far  to  pro- 
mote cleanliness  and  prevent  this  smell  if  the  seat  enclosure  were 
wholly  dispensed  with,  and  the  floor,  with  its  carpet,*  or  oilcloth 
were  continued  entirely  under  the  seat.  In  the  case  of  all  the  best 
kinds  of  closet  apparatus,  comprising  merely  a  basin  with  siphon  trap 
beneath — all  in  one  piece  of  glazed  stoneware — there  would  be  no- 
eyesore  in  such  an  arrangement,  while  every  nook  and  corner  would 
be  visible,  and  subject  to  the  frequent  application  of  the  broom  and 
duster. 

The  simplest  possible  method  of  fitting  up  a  closet 
with  seat,  is  to  have  a  well-finished  hardwood  rim 
placed  and  fastened  on  top  of  the  hopper,  and  the 
latter  may  be  set  on  a  tiled  floor  or  on  a  slab  of 
marble  or  of  a  good  quality  of  slate.  This  afrange- 
ment  is  especially  adapted  to  workshops,  factories, 
railroad  stations,  hospitals,  etc. 

Hopper  closets  are  also  made  of  earthenware  with 
the  top  so  shaped  as  to  serve  as  a  seat,  thereby  dis- 
pensing entirely  with  any  woodwork,  which  is  always 
more  or  less  absorbent  and  becomes  in  time  saturated 
with  urine  and  perspiration  from  the  body.  If  this 
hopper  stands  in  a  well-heated  apartment,  it  has  much 
to  recommend  it,  especially  for  hospitals  for  insane 


*  A  carpet  should  never  be  recommended. — The  Author. 


128 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 


and  also  for  factories.  If  placed  in  a  room  not  well 
warmed  in  winter  time,  the  closet  is  liable  to  become 
filthy  through  improper  use. 

Arrangement  of  Bath  and  Toilet  Rooms. 

Figs.  41   and  42    are  sketches,  illustrating  in  plan 


Fig.  41. — Plan  of  a  modern  bathroom. 


and  elevation  the  general  appearance  of  a  modern 
bathroom,  arranged  according  to  the  principles  given. 
Plate  I.  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  similar  bathroom 
with  open  fixtures.  A  number  of  illustrations  per- 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES. 


129 


Fig.  42. — Elevation  showing  exposed  plumbing  in  a  modern  bathroom. 


130  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

taining  to  this  subject  may  be  found  in  subsequent 
chapters  of  this  volume. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  compare  these  bathrooms 
with  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  i,  which  represents  the 
manner  formerly  usual  of  arranging  the  lavatory, 
closet  and  bathtub  in  houses,  to  understand  at  once 
the  great  advantages  of  such  open  arrangement. 

Bathrooms   should,  wherever  possible,  be   located 


Fig.  43. — Plan  showing  water  closet  located  separate  from  bathroom. 

near  an  outside  wall,  with  windows  affording  ample 
light  and  ventilation.  If  they  must  be  located  in  the 
centre  of  the  house,  special  ventilation  of  the  apart- 
ment must  be  provided.  In  regard  to  this  matter  I 
must  refer  the  reader  to  treatises  on  "  Ventilation,"* 


*  A  very  readable  account  of  "House  Building  in  its  Relation  to  Hygiene," 
especially  on  "  Heating  and  Ventilation,"  has  been  written  by  Carl  Pfeiffer,  Esq., 
architect  for  "  Wood's  Household  Practice  of  Medicine,"  Vol.  T. 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  131 

and  to  the  article  on  the  "  Proper  Arrangement  of 
Water  Closets  and  Bath  Apartments,"  in  this  volume. 
Speaking  of  the  arrangement  of  bathrooms,  I  wish 
to  state  that  the  American  custom  of  locating  the 
bathtub,  bowl  and  water  closet  in  the  same  apart- 
ment, is,  in  my  judgment,  objectionable,  and  should 
only  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  large  residences,  hav- 
ing a  great  number  of  bath  and  dressing  rooms.  For 


Fig.  44. —  Plan  illustrating  separation  of  water  closet  and  bathroom. 

small  dwelling  houses,  cottages,  and  for  apartment 
houses,  the  water  closet  should  be  located  in  a  separ- 
ate, well-lighted  and  well-ventilated  apartment,  with 
a  door  opening  into  the  hallway,  if  possible,  ad- 
joining the  door  leading  to  the  bathroom.  (See 
Figs.  43  and  44). 

A    successful    though   somewhat    complicated    ar- 
rangement   for    preventing    the    fouling   of    the    air 


132 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


through  plumbing-  fixtures,  consists  in  ventilating  not 
only  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  and  the  traps,  but,  in 
addition  to  these,  the  house  side  of  the  trap  or  the 
generally  short  length  of  waste  pipe  between  the  fix- 
ture and  the  trap,  and  the  overflow  pipes,  where  such 
are  provided.  I  have  already  mentioned  that  over- 
flow pipes,  and  any  waste  pipe  not  often  used  and 


rMoi/ctf  me  JfasTf  /wo  Orfxnon  flee 


Fig-  45.  — Local  ventilation  of  plumbing  fixtures  by  connection 
with  a  heated  vent  flue. 


flushed,  are  liable  to  become  foul  and  ill-smelling, 
and  for  overflow  pipes  in  particular  such  a  ventilation 
is  desirable.  It  consists  in  running  vent  pipes  of 
proper  size  from  the  house  side  of  the  trap  to  some 
constantly  heated  flue  or  shaft.  (See  Fig.  45).  Such 
method  of  ventilation  will  also  remove  any  gases  that 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  133 

may  possibly  be  given  off  from  the  house  side  of  a 
water  seal,  in  case  the  water  in  the  latter  should 
become  stagnant.  In  office  buildings,  stores  and  fac- 
tories, it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  secure  a  constant 
draft,  by  the  use  of  a  steam-coil  or  a  smokestack,  and 
even  in  a  private  dwelling  such  ventilation  can  be 
provided.  I  have,  heretofore,  objected  to  running 
either  soil,  waste  or  vent  pipes  into  a  heated  flue,  but 
the  arrangement  for  ventilating  fixtures  differs  from 
the  former,  as  the  ventilation  is  entirely  on  the  house 
side  of  the  trap.  This  method  of  ventilation  may  also 
be  applied  to  the  water  closets.  It  is  arranged  either 
directly  under  the  seat  or  else  the  bowl  is  provided 
with  a  vent  pipe  attachment,  or  the  hopper  is  pro- 
vided just  above  the  house  side  of  the  water  seal 
with  a  vent. 

The  local  vent  pipes  attached  to  fixtures  will  secure 
a  constant  down  draft  through  strainers  and  overflow 
pipes  of  basins,  baths  and  sinks,  as  well  as  from  the 
bowls  of  water  closets,  and  will,  to  some  extent, 
assist  in  changing  or  removing  the  vitiated  air  of  the 
apartment,  instead  of,  as  is  usually  the  case,  being  the 
cause  of  the  pollution  of  the  air  in  the  rooms.  For 
bathrooms  without  an  external  window,  however,  this 
arrangement  would  be  insufficient,  and  a  special  ven- 
tilation of  the  room  should  preferably  be  arranged. 

I  cannot  entirely  agree  with  those  who  would 
banish  all  modern  conveniences  from  the  main  por- 
tion of  the  house,  and  would  place  them  all  in  an 
annex,  cut  off  from  the  main  house.  The  comfort 


134  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  convenience  of  plumbing-  fixtures  would,  to  a 
great  extent,  be  lost  by  following  such  a  plan.  What 
should  be  done  is  to  abolish  water  closets  and  wash- 
bowls from  sleeping  rooms  or  unventilated  closed 
closets,  adjoining  these — as  is  often  found  in  Ameri- 
can hotels.  I  believe,  on  the  other  hand,  that  it  is 
quite  possible  to  arrange  a  bathroom  in  the  centre  of 
a  house,  or  adjoining  a  sleeping  room,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  perfectly  healthy. 

Mr.  E.   C.   Gardner,   the   well-known  architectural 
writer,  thus  describes  a  bathroom  for  a  "  home  "  : 

A  bathroom,  with  all  the  plumbing  articles  it  usually  contains, 
must  possess  at  least  three  special  characteristics.  It  must  be  easily 
warmed  in  cold  weather,  otherwise  the  annual  bill  for  repairs  will  be 
greater  than  the  cost  of  coal  for  the  whole  house.  Its  walls,  floors 
and  ceilings  must  be  impervious  to  sound.  The  music  of  murmur- 
ing brooks  is  delightful  to  our  ears,  so  is  the  patter  of  the  soft  rain 
on  the  roof;  but  the  splashing  of  water  in  a  bathtub  and  the  gurg- 
ling of  unseen  water  pipes,  are  not  pleasant  accompaniments  to  a 
dinner  table  conversation.  Thirdly,  it  must  be  perfectly  ventilated — 
not  the  drain  pipes  merely,  but  the  room  itself — in  summer  and  in 
winter.  Two  of  the  above  conditions  can  best  be  secured  by  arrang- 
ing to  have  this  important  room  placed  in  a  detached  or  semi-de- 
tached wing;  and  here  begin  the  compromises  between  convenience, 
cost  and  safety.  It  is  convenient  to  have  a  bathroom  attached  to 
every  chamber,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  may  be  done  with 
entire  safety,  provided  the  cost  is  not  regarded.  The  bathroom  for 
the  chambers  of  the  second  floor  should  be  located  not  too  remote, 
but  somewhat  retired,  and  having  no  communication  with  any  other 
room.  It  should  be  ventilated  by  a  large  open  flue  carried  up 
directly  through  the  roof;  it  should  also  have  an  outside  window  and 
inlets  for  fresh  air  near  the  floor.  All  the  walls  and  partitions 
around  it  should  be  double  and  filled  with  mineral  wool,  and  the 
floors  should  be  deafened.  The  "  house  side  "  of  the  water  closet 
traps  should  have  three-inch  iron  pipes  running  to  the  ventilating 
flue  beside  the  kitchen  chimney,  a  flue  that  will  always  be  warm,  and 
therefore  certain  to  give  a  strong  upward  draught  at  all  times,  which 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  135 

cannot  be  said  of  any  other  flue  in  the  house,  not  even  of  the  main 
drain  or  soil  pipe  which  passes  up  through  the  roof.  It  would  be 
easy  to  keep  other  flues  warmed  in  cold  weather  by  steam  pipes,  but 
in  summer  no  steam  for  heating  purposes  is  available.  A  "  circula- 
lation-pipe  "  might  be  attached  to  a  boiler  on  the  kitchen  range  for 
this  purpose,  but  such  a  contrivance  would  cost  more  than  the  iron 
pipe  carried  from  the  bathroom  to  the  flue  that  is  warmed  by  the 
kitchen  fire.  A  good  way  to  build  this  ventilating  flue  is  to  enclose 
the  smoke-pipe  from  the  range,  which  may  of  iron  or  glazed  earthen 
pipe,  in  a  larger  brick  flue  or  chamber,  keeping  it  in  place  by  bars 
'of  iron  laid  into  the  masonry.  The  rising  current  of  warm  air  around 
the  heated  smoke  pipe  will  be  as  constant  and  reliable  as  the  trade 
winds. 

It  has  been  customary,  hitherto,  to  provide  "  set 
fixtures  "  not  only  with  overflow  pipes,  but,  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  with  "  safes"  or  linings  of  sheet  lead  on 
the  floor,  turned  up  two  or  three  inches,  from  which 
a  drip  pipe  carries  any  leakage  of  water  safely  away, 
thus  preventing-  damage  to  ceilings.  Such  drip  pipes 
should,  under  no  circumstances  whatever,  be  con- 
nected to  any  soil  or  waste  pipe,  or  any  sewer.  They 
must  run  vertically  down  to  the  basement  or  to  the 
cellar,  discharging  over  an  open  sink,  or  into  a  mov- 
able pail,  or  they  must  stop  at  the  ceiling  of  the  cellar, 
their  mouth  being  closed  with  a  return  bend,  having 
a  deep  water  seal,  to  prevent  cellar  air  from  rising  to 
the  upper  floors. 

Lead  safes,  however,  are  a  very  unsightly  addition 
to  any  plumbing  fixture.  The  suggestions  in  regard 
to  setting  fixtures  in  an  "  open  "  manner  could  hardly 
be  followed  if  lead  safes  are  used.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  seems  at  least  very  doubtful  if  such  safes  are 
really  needed  where  fixtures  are  set  without  wood- 


136  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

work.  In  the  latter  case  a  leak  at  a  coupling  of  a 
washbowl  faucet,  or  any  other  leak,  would  speedily 
be  detected  before  doing  much  damage.  I  therefore 
advise  doing  away  with  "safes"  as  much  as  possible, 
except  possibly  in  the  case  of  plumbing  fixtures 
located  directly  over  expensively  decorated  parlor  or 
dining  room  ceilings. 

In  a  book  full  of  sound  practical  advice  on  matters 
connected  with  "  Building  a  Home,"  the  well-known 
architect,  Mr.  E.  C.  Gardner,  discusses  this  matter  as 
follows  : 

It  is  customary,  and  doubtless  wise,  considering  our  habit  of  doing 
things  so  imperfectly  the  first  time,  that  we  have  no  confidence  in 
stability,  to  place  large  basins  of  sheet  lead  under  all  plumbing 
articles,  lest  from  some  cause  they  should  "  spring  a  leak  "  and  dam- 
age the  floors  or  ceilings  below  them..  One  strong  safeguard  being 
better  than  two  weak  ones,  I  would  dispense  with  the  "  overflow  " 
and  arrange  so  that  when  anything  ran  over  accidentally  the  lead 
basin  or  "  safe  "  should  catch  the  water  and  carry  it  through  an 
ample  waste  pipe  of  its  own  to  some  inoffensive  outlet.  This  would, 
perhaps,  involve  setting  the  plumbing  articles  in  the  most  simple  and 
open  fashion — which  ought  always  to  be  done.  Cabinets,  cupboards, 
casings  and  wood  finish,  no  matter  how  full  of  conveniences,  or  how 
elegantly  made,  are  worse  than  useless  in  connection  with  plumbing 
fixtures,  which,  for  all  reasons,  should  stand  forth  in  absolute  naked- 
ness. They  must  be  so  strongly  and  simply  made  that  no  conceal- 
ment will  be  necessary. 

Care  and  Management  of  Plumbing  Fixtures. 

A  few  words  might  with  advantage  be  said  in  re- 
gard to  the  care  of  plumbing  work.  No  matter  how 
well  planned  and  arranged,  plumbing  fixtures  must 
be  judiciously  used,  and  require  looking  after  from 
time  to  time.  Even  the  best  ventilated  and  best 
flushed  water  closet  will  get  foul,  untidy  and  ill- 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  137 

smelling,  unless  often  cleaned  ;  the  same  is  true  of 
kitchen  sinks,  laundry  tubs,  slop  hoppers  and  other 
appliances.  It  is  especially  important  that  the  water 
in  all  traps  should  be  frequently  changed.  A  good 
housewife  should  instruct  the  housemaid  in  regard  to 
these  cleaning  operations,  wrhich  should  be  repeated 
at  fixed  and  frequent  intervals,  certainly  as  often  as 
once  a  wreek. 

All  earthenware  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by 
means  of  hot  water,  soap  and  a  scrubbing  brush  ; 
dust  and  dirt  must  be  removed,  and  the  walls  and 
floors  frequently  washed  and  scrubbed.  All  this  will 
be  much  facilitated,  first,  by  arranging  the  fixtures  in 
an  open  manner,  as  described  heretofore,  and  second, 
by  locating  each  fixture  in  a  well-lighted  apartment 
or  closet. 

In  addition  to  such  regular  cleaning  operations, 
sanitary  inspections  of  the  whole  plumbing  work  are 
much  to  be  recommended.  A  prudent  householder 
will  have  the  plumbing  work  examined  at  least  as 
often  as  the  annual  house-cleaning  occurs,  to  make 
sure  of  the  reliability  of  all  traps  under  fixtures,  of  the 
good  condition  of  all  flushing  apparatus,  of  the 
absence  of  leaks,  etc. 

The  best  disinfectant  for  plumbing  work  is  fresh 
air  and  a  bountiful  flush  of  water,  assisted  by  manual 
cleansing.  It  may,  however,  at  times  become  neces- 
sary to  use  disinfectants  in  those  plumbing  fixtures 
which  receive  discharges  from  the  human  body  A 
diluted  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  has  been 


138  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

recommended  lately  as  being  the  best ;  but  it  must 
be  used  with  great  caution,  as  it  is  a  strong  poison. 
Sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas  is  much  cheaper  ;  both 
should  be  followed  with  a  large  quantity  of  clean 
water  to  prevent  any  chemical  action  on  the  waste 
pipes  and  traps. 

Considerable  trouble  is  experienced  in  the  proper 
care  of  plumbing  in  dwellings  occupied  only  during 
a  part  of  the  year.  There  are,  first,  a  large  number 
of  city  residences  which  are  generally  closed,  or  at 
least  their  plumbing  fixtures  put  out  of  use,  for  two 
or  three  months,  and  sometimes  for  a  longer  period 
during  the  summer.  The  great  danger  in  this  case  is 
from  evaporation  of  the-  water  in  traps,  the  seal  of 
which  is  rarely  more  than  i£  or  two  inches  in  depth. 
To  quote  from  T.  M.  Clark,  Esq.,  architect  : 

Few  people  need  to  be  told  that  a  week  or  two  of  hot  weather  is 
enough  to  evaporate  the  sealing  water  from  the  traps  of  washbowls, 
baths,  or  even  water  closets,  leaving  an  open  passage  from  the  drains 
into  the«house,  through  which  sewer  vapors  flow  freely,  often  satur- 
ating curtains,  carpets  and  furniture  with  their  faint,  sickly  odor,  to 
salute  the  family  on  its  return  home  in  the  autumn.  When  we  re- 
flect, also,  that  the  reopening  of  the  house  usually  takes  place  in  the 
most  fatal  month  of  the  year — September — when  the  system  is 
especially  susceptible  to  zymotic  influences,  and  that  the  return  of 
delicate  persons  from  the  country  air  to  the  stifling  atmosphere  of  the 
city,  is  generally  attended  with  a  certain  depression  of  the  vital 
powers,  the  danger  of  sudden  exposure  to  the  influence  of  a  house 
where  foul  vapors  have  for  months  been  floating  undisturbed,  and 
their  deposits  accumulating  and  corrupting  in  the  darkness,  is  evi- 
dent, and  the  trifling  care  which  is  necessary  to  give  reasonable  secur- 
ity against  at  least  the  unchecked  circulation  of  foul  air  in  the  rooms 
will  be  well  repaid. 

The  ordinary  water  seal  trap  affords  no  protection 


PLUMBING    FIXTURES.  139 

in  case  of  evaporation  of  the  water  ;  non-siphoning 
traps  and  mechanical  traps  with  a  flap-valve,  or  a 
trap  with  a  gravity  ball-valve,  or  with  floating  ball, 
are  preferable  in  this  respect. 

Fixtures  with  a  socket  and  plug,  or  a  waste-cock 
(bowls,  bathtubs,  pantry  sinks,  washtubs),  may  be 
closed  against  sewer  air  by  shutting  the  waste  valve, 
or  closing  the  outlet  with  a  plug  and  filling  the  fix- 
ture with  water.  The  holes  in  the  overflow  are 
generally  closed  with  corks,  in  the  case  of  bowls,  and 
with  paper  secured  with  glue,  over  the  outlet,  in  the 
case  of  sinks  and  tubs.  This  does  not,  of  course, 
afford  perfect  protection,  but  practically  it  serves  the 
purpose  of  excluding  sewer  air  quite  well.  The  com- 
mon open  strainers  for  sinks  can  be  replaced  by  plug 
strainers,  and  the  latter  inserted  and  the  sink  filled 
with  water.  In  this  respect,  fixtures  without  overflow 
pipe  offer  great  advantages. 

A  much  better,  though  more  costly  protection,  may 
be  found  in  providing  each  waste  pipe  with  a  lever 
handle  round  way  stop-cock,  to  shut  off  when  the 
house  is  being  closed.  It  need  hardly  be  mentioned 
that  the  water  supply  must  be  shut  off  from  every 
fixture  before  closing  the  stop-cock  on  the  waste  pipe. 

For  the  traps  of  water  closets  the  only  remedy 
would  be  to  dip  out  all  the  water  and  replace  it  by 
oil  or  by  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium.  A  piece 
of  rock  salt  placed  in  the  water  of  the  trap,  will  tend 
to  keep  it  filled  by  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air. 
These  latter  solutions  may  also  be  used  for  all  traps 
on  smaller  waste  pipes. 


I4O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Secondly,  trouble  is  experienced  in  the  case  of 
country  or  sea-shore  dwellings,  summer  hotels,  etc., 
which  are  closed  during  the  winter  season.  The  chief 
danger  to  the  plumbing  work  arises  in  this  case  from 
the  freezing  of  the  water  in  pipes  and  traps.  All 
supply  pipes  in  such  buildings  should,  of  course,  be 
planned  and  laid  out  in  such  a  manner  that  every 
line  of  pipe  can  be  completely  drained  and  emptied. 
All  waste  pipes,  on  the  other  hand,  should  have  in 
a  good  system  of  plumbing  sufficient  fall  to  insure 
the  running  off  of  all  water  from  the  pipes.  The 
difficulty  arises  from  the  water  which  forms  the  seal 
in  the  traps.  In  a  well-arranged  system  every  trap 
is,  if  not  in  plain  sight,  at  least  easily  accessible,  and 
every  trap  can  and  should  be  emptied  either  by  re- 
moving a  brass  screw  at  its  bottom,  or  else  by  dip- 
ping the  water  out  with  a  sponge.  After  this  is  done 
each  fixture  affords  an  opening  to  the  entrance  of 
sewer  air,  and  must  be  closed  in  the  same  way  as 
stated  above  for  dwellings  closed  in  summer  time. 
It  may  be  preferable  not  to  empty  the  traps,  but  to 
throw  a  large  quantity  of  rock-salt  into  them,  which, 
though  it  does  not  render  freezing  impossible,  still 
renders  it  much  more  difficult.  If  not  too  expensive, 
a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  water  may  prove  of  great 
service. 


V. 


SEWAGE  REMOVAL  AND  SEWAGE 
DISPOSAL. 


While  faults  of  the  interior  drainage  work  con- 
tribute a  large  share  to  the  pollution  of  the  atmos- 
phere which  we  breathe,  faulty  external  sewerage, 
besides  being  the  cause  of  a  vitiation  of  the  air, 
creates  a  most  dangerous  pollution  of  the  soil  around 
and  under  habitations,  and  likewise  frequently  poisons 
the  water  from  wells  and  springs.  The  water  \vhich 
we  drink  must  be  as  pure  and  wholesome  as  the  air 
we  breathe.  Country  houses  in  particular  depend 
usually  upon  a  wrell  or  cistern  situated  near  the  house 
for  the  supply  of  water,  hence  the  external  sewerage 
of  such  houses  is  of  greater  importance  even  than 
that  of  city  houses. 

The  defects  usually  found  in  external  drains  or 
house  sewers  are  numerous.  They  relate  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  drain,  to  the  manner  of  jointing  pipes 
and  laying  drains,  to  the  material  of  the  drains,  to 
their  size  and  shape,  and  to  the  manner  in  which 
junctions  with  branch  drains  and  with  the  street 
sewers  are  made.  Foremost  among  them  I  mention 
leaky  joints,  for  these  work  multifold  harm.  Not 
only  does  the  liquid  soak  away  into  the  soil  to  find 
its  way  to  the  nearest  well  or  spring,  but  a  constant 


142  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

accumulation  and  gradual  saturation  of  the  soil  with 
filth  are  inevitable.  Then  again,  deposits  occur  in  the 
pipes,  because  the  force  of  the  flush  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent lost  if  the  waste  water  soaks  away  at  the  joints, 
and  the  solid  particles  of  sewage  remaining  stranded 
in  the  pipes  soon  decompose  and  fill  the  pipes  with 
gases  of  decay. 

Another  cause  of  deposits  in  house  drains  is  found 
in  the  irregular  or  insufficient  inclination  given  to  the 
pipe.  How  seldom  is  the  simple  precaution  observed 
of  taking  levels  to  ascertain  the  available  fall  from 
the  point  where  the  drain  leaves  the  house  to  the 
junction  with  the  sewer!  Hence  we  often  find  house 
drains  sloping  the  wrong  way,  being  in  reality  noth- 
ing but  "  elongated  cesspools."  It  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  avoid  such  mistakes  by  the  use  of  a  com- 
mon spirit  level. 

A  further  defect  is  the  almost  universal  preference 
of  drain-layers  and  ignorant  builders  for  large  pipes. 
Not  many  years  ago  nine  and  even  twelve-inch  pipes 
were  used  for  the  drainage  of  an  ordinary  city  house 
and  lot ;  only  lately  six-inch  house  drains  have  been 
used  for  city  dwellings  of  average  size,  and  a  five- 
inch  pipe,  which  answers  for  most  city  or  country 
houses,  except  for  unusually  large  residences,  is  still 
the  exception.  The  larger  the  pipe  for  a  given 
amount  of  water,  the  more  sluggish  will  the  velocity 
of  the  stream  be.  Thus  we  find  in  the  large  size  of 
drains  another  cause  of  accumulation  of  deposits. 
Mr.  Dempsey,  C.  E.,  in  his  "  Drainage  of  Towns  and 
Buildings,"  says  : 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  143 

Sewers  and  drains  were  formerly  devised  with  the  single  object  of 
making  them  large  enough,  by  which  it  was  supposed  that  their  full 
efficiency  was  secured.  But  sluggishness  of  action  is  now  recognized 
as  the  certain  consequence  of  excess  of  surface,  equally  as  of  de- 
ficiency of  declination.  A  small  stream  of  liquid  matter,  extending 
over  a  wide  surface,  and  reduced  in  depth  in  proportion  to  the  width, 
suffers  retardation  from  this  circumstance  as  well  as  from  want  of 
declivity  in  the  current.  Hence  a  drain  which  is  disproportionally 
large  in  comparison  to  the  amount  of  drainage,  becomes  an  inopera- 
tive apparatus  by  reason  of  its  undue  dimensions,  while,  if  the  same 
amount  of  drainage  is  concentrated  within  a  more  limited  channel,  a 
greater  rapidity  is  produced,  and  every  addition  to  the  contents  of 
the  drain  adds,  by  the  full  force  of  its  gravity,  in  propelling  the  entire 
quantity  forward  to  the  point  of  discharge. 

The  English  architect,  Ernest  Turner,  well-known 
as  a  prominent  sanitarian,  speaks  about  size  of  drain 
pipes  as  follows  in  his  book,  "  Hints  to  Househunters 
and  Householders  "  : 

It  is  extraordinary  that  the  practice  of  making  drains  as  large  as 
possible  instead  of  as  small  as  may  be  necessary  for  efficient  working 
should  have  continued  so  long  as  it  has.  The  only  possible  reason 
must  be,  "  every  drain  is  bound  to  choke  sooner  or  later,  and  the 
larger  the  pipe  the  longer  it  will  take  before  it  requires  cleaning." 

The  smaller  the  pipe  the  less  the  friction — the  greater  the  hydrau- 
lic pressure  the  greater  the  velocity,  and  consequently  the  less  chance 
there  is  of  any  obstruction  taking  place. 

It  is  a  common  notion  that  an  ordinary  medium-sized  dwelling 
house  requires  a  nine-inch  drain;  but  the  idea  is  altogether  erroneous- 

To  carry  off  a  small  quantity  of  water  quickly,  a  small  pipe  mus^ 
be  used.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  the  wetted  perimeter  to  the 
volume  of  water  to  be  discharged,  the  greater,  obviously,  the  resist- 
ance. 

If  a  pipe  becomes  choked  it  is  generally  owing  to  its  being  too 
large — not  too  small — or  to  faulty  laying  of  construction. 

Mr.  Eassie,  in  a  chapter  on  "  House  Drainage,"  in 
the  book  "  Our  Homes  and  HOWT  to  Make  Them 
Healthy,"  states  the  following: 


144  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Drains  are  very  frequently  laid  down  of  far  too  large  a  sectional 
area;  six  inches  in  diameter  where  four  inches  would  have  sufficed, 
nine  inches  where  six  inches  would  have  been  sufficient,  and  twelve 
inches  where  nine  would  have  been  ample.  This  laying  down  of  too 
large  pipes  is  one  of  the  most  besetting  sins  in  house  drainage  when 
that  has  been  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  builder.  I  have  taken 
up  twelve-inch  pipes  in  a  house  and  replaced  them  with  six-inch 
pipes.  The  sizes  of  the  pipes  to  be  used  should  not  be  decided  hap- 
hazard, but  advice  taken  upon  this  subject  from  a  competent  person. 
As  a  general  rule,  a  four-inch  pipe  is  sufficient  for  a  cottage,  and  a 
six-inch  pipe  for  an  extensive  dwelling.  In  deciding  the  diameter  of 
the  drain  pipes,  due  provision  must  be  made  for  the  rainfall,  or  seri- 
ous floodings  may  be  the  result  after  every  storm  of  unusual  severity. 

Other  defects  of  house  drains  relate  to  the  shape 
and  material  of  the  pipes.  Brick  drains  with  flat  bot- 
toms are  an  abomination,  but  some  of  the  finest  resi- 
dences remove  (or  rather  retain)  the  household 
wastes  through  such  square  channels,  twelve  by 
twelve-inch  in  cross  section.  Wooden  drains  are  not 
any  better,  for  being-  alternately  wet  and  dry  they 
quickly  rot,  and  the  roughness  of  the  inner  surfaces 
of  such  conduits  tends  to  create  deposits. 

Vitrified  glazed  sewer  pipes,  properly  shaped, 
smoothly  glazed  and  well  burnt,  are  preferable  to  all 
other  kinds,  even  to  cement  pipes.  They  should  be 
laid  with  care,  on  proper  foundations  or  supports,  and 
be  well  aligned,  properly  jointed  and  laid  with  a  reg- 
ular fall.  Often  no  attempt  is  made  to  tighten 
the  joints  of  vitrified  pipes,  and  the  mistaken  notion 
seems  largely  to  prevail  that  through  such  open  joints 
subsoil  water  may  be  removed  from  the  surrounding 
soil,  the  house  drain  thus  performing  a  double  ser- 
vice, for  which  it  should  never  have  been  intended. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  ,        145 

Conduits  for  the  removal  of  the  foul  liquid  wastes 
from  houses  should  be  tight  beyond  doubt.  In  made 
ground,  where  drains  are  liable  to  settle  and  break, 
earthen  pipes  should  be  replaced  by  iron  pipes,  and 
this  is  true  also  of  drains  passing  near  a  well  or  cistern. 

Another  serious  and  frequent  defect  relates  to  the 
junction  of  branches  to  the  main  drain,  T  branches, 
i.  e.,  right-angled  connection  pieces  being  used,  which 
cause  eddies  and  accumulation  of  deposits.  The 
same  error  of  construction  is  often  made  at  the  point 
where  a  house  drain  connects  to  a  street  sewer.  In 
order  to  join  the  flow  from  both  with  the  least  pos- 
sible retardation  of  the  current,  the  branch  should 
enter  the  drain  under  an  angle  of  45  or  60°.  Deliver- 
ing a  large  drain  pipe  into  one  of  smaller  diameter  is 
a  mistake  too  often  made  by  ignorant  or  skin  builders. 

From  personal  notes  of  a  recent  inspection  of  the 
drainage  of  a  large  sea-side  hotel  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  I  quote  the  following : 

The  ground  underneath  the  building  appears  to  be  saturated  with 
excremental  and  greasy  filth.  There  is  an  extensive  network  of  terra 
cotta  drain  pipes  under  them,  a  few  of  these  being  main  lines,  into 
which  a  large  number  of  laterals  discharge.  Most  of  these  laterals 
are  six  inches  in  diameter  (sometimes  for  a  single  kitchen  sink),  but 
some  are  even  larger.  These  drains  are  laid  in  the  most  wretched 
manner,  without  regard  to  alignment  or  grade,  partly  on  the  surface, 
partly  in  the  ground,  a  few  being  only  half  covered.  Few,  if  any 
joints  appeared  to  be  tight.  I  observed  the  rising  tide  coming  out 
of  some  joints  in  a  heavy  stream;  in  other  joints  the  cement  had 
crumbled  off,  or  had  been  washed  out  or  was  removed  through 
gnawing  of  rats.  Many  drains  were  cracked  and  broken,  some  had 
large  holes  at  the  top  which  allowed  sewer  air  to  pass  freely  upwards 
into  the  buildings.  Laterals  joined  the  main  sewer  pipe  by 
T-branches.  I  could  not  detect  a  single  Y-branch;  some  laterals 


14-6  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

even  ran  into  the  main  drain  in  a  direction  against  the  current.  The 
whole  drainage  work  under  the  building  appeared  to  be  patch-work, 
done  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  required.  The  waste  pipes  from 
fixtures  located  in  the  building  delivered  directly  into  the  network  of 
drains  just  described;  all  kinds  of  materials  were  used  for  such 
wastes;  square  wooden  pipes,  galvanized  iron  pipes,  tin,  lead,  cast 
and  wrought  iron  and  earthen  pipes.  A  bend  at  the  junction  of  a 
vertical  and  a  horizontal  pipe  was  the  exception;  in  nearly  all  cases 
junctions  were  made  with  right-angled  elbows.  Theonly  ruling  prin- 
ciple for  the  drainage  of  the  building  seemed  to  have  been  to  provide 
drains  of  ample  size.  At  times  of  high  tide  the  sewage  backs  up  in  the 
drains  and  floods  the  surface  under  the  building  by  oozing  out  at  the 
joints.  When  the  tide  recedes,  sewage  mud  is  left  on  the  ground  to 
decompose.  Hence  arises  the  frequent  complaint  of  offensive  smells 
from  the  drains. 

Conditions  such  as  herein  described  are  by  no 
means  exceptional,  and  similar  defects  exist  in  many 
houses  even  at  the  present  day,  Owing  to  the  indif- 
ference of  the  general  public  the  actual  condition  of 
the  outside  drainage  of  a  house  is  something  seldom 
inquired  into,  except  when  sickness  has  made  its  ap- 
pearance, or  when  continued  complaints  of  ill-health 
force  it  to  the  attention  of  the  house  occupants. 

The  usual  modes  of  disposing  of  liquid  house- 
hold wastes  and  human  excreta  are  briefly  as  follows  : 
Comparatively  few  cities  have  a  complete  sewerage 
system  with  sewers  in  the  principal  streets  to  which 
the  house  drains  connect.  Many  cities,  however,  are 
provided  with  a  partial  system  of  sewers,  often  more 
or  less  faulty  in  design  and  worse  in  construction. 
With  these  it  is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  the 
connection  between  the  house  drain  and  the  sewer 
improperly  made.  Other  cities  are  still  without  any 
system  of  sewerage  whatever,  and  in  smaller  towns 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  147 

and  villages  it  is  a  common,  though  much  to  be  con- 
demned, practice  to  store  the  sewage  of  the  house- 
hold in  cesspools,  which  are  not  unusually  located 
close  to  the  house,  in  some  cases  even  underneath 
the  dwelling. 

In  most  cases  cesspools  are  merely  large  pits 
dug  in  the  ground  and  walled  up  with  loese 
stones.  The  liquid  contents  are  left  to  soak  away 
into  the  subsoil,  while  all  solids  and  grease  from  the 
kitchen  remain  in  the  cesspool  to  decompose  and  gen- 
erate noxious  gases.  Should  the  pores  of  the  soil 
stop  up  and  the  liquid  cease  to  leach  into  the  ground, 
the  cesspool  is  abandoned  and  a  new  hole  dug  close 
to  the  first  one.  In  other  instances  two  cesspools  are 
built,  the  first  one  supposed  to  be  tight,  to  retain  the 
solid  and  grease  from  the  household,  the  second  one 
a  leaching  cesspool,  connected  with  the  first  one  by 
an  overflow  pipe,  through  which  the  filthy  liquids  run 
to  be  disposed  of  by  soakage  into  the  ground.  A 
continuous  pollution  and  dangerous  saturation  of  the 
soil  about  human  habitations  is  thus  going  on,  while 
the  air  which  we  breathe  is  tainted  by  the  foul  emana- 
tions commonly  known  as  "  sewer  gas." 

Not  less  dangerous  than  the  accumulation  of  putrid 
organic  matter  is  the  pollution  of  the  underground 
water  by  the  foul  liquid  soaking  into  the  ground. 
Chemical  analysis  of  the  water  of  wells,  situated  in 
proximity  to  cesspools,  or  receiving  the  surface  drain- 
age from  stables,  cow-houses,  etc.,  generally  reveals 
organic  matter  in  the  water.  Such  contamination  is 


148 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


all  the  more  serious,  because  in  town  and  villages  or 
isolated  country  houses  the  people  quite  often  are 
obliged  to  depend  upon  the  well  for  the  supply  of 
drinking-  water  to  men  and  animals. 

Another  much  to  be  detested  practice,  which  I  am 
almost  tempted  to  call  a  crime,  is  the  use  of  an  aban- 
doned deep  well  for  a  cesspool.  And  this  is  true  for 
drains  discharging  water  closet  wastes  into  it  as  well 
as  for  those  discharging  slop  water  only.  Practically, 
there  is  hardly  a  perceptible  difference  between  either 


WELL, 


Fig.  46. — Cone  of  filtration. 

kind  of  wastes  after  they  have  been  retained  for  some 
time  in  a  cesspool. 

The  question  is  often  asked  :  "  At  what  distance 
from  a  well  would  it  be  safe  to  put  a  leaching  cess- 
pool ? "  Sanitary  science  has  but  one  answer  to  this 
query :  It  prohibits  the  use  of  leaching  cesspools 
altogether. 

Prof,  Kedzie,  of  Michigan,  has  lately  illustated  the 
question  of  soil  and  water  pollution  by  showing  two 
cones,  one  of  which  he  calls  the  cone  of  filtration, 
Fig.  46,  and  the  other  the  cone  of  pollution,  Fig.  47. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


149 


The  first  cone  shows  the  distance  and  the  area  drained 
by  the  well.  It  is  clear  that  the  radius  of  the  base  of 
the  cone  must  depend  on  the  depth  of  the  well,  and 
on  the  character  of  the  soil  through  which  the  well  is 
sunk.  Again,  the  area  of  soil  which  may  be  polluted 
by  soakage  from  a  cesspool  will  depend  on  the  soil 
and  on  the  depth  of  the  cesspool. 

Practically,  we  are  not  yet  able  in  a  given  case,  to 
draw  exact  diagrams  of  the  two  cones.  If  we  could 
do  this  the  question  of  pollution  of  a  well,  in  a  given 


CfcSSPOOL  - 


' 


t     '.    V     *     \    \\ 

\\V\\\\ 

\  v\\  \v 


Fig.  47. — Cone  of  pollution. 

instance,  by  soakage  from  cesspools,  could  readily  be 
answered  without  the  aid  of  chemical  analysis.  The 
diagrams,  however,  are  admirably  adapted  to  convey 
to  the  general  public  an  idea  of  the  danger  incurred 
by  locating  wells  and  cesspools  in  close  proximity  to 
one  another.  Wherever  the  two  cones  would  inter- 
sect each  other,  there  a  pollution  is  inevitable.  Even 
where  they  do  not  cross  each  other,  there  is  still  some 
danger,  for  the  cone  of  soakage  might  strike  a  water- 


I5O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

bearing  stratum,  and  liquid  impurities  may  then  be 
carried  to  great  distances  horizontally,  polluting 
springs  and  causing  zymotic  disease. 

A  leaching  cesspool  is,  under  all  circumstances,  an 
abomination.  Less  dangerous  and  hardly  as  objec- 
tionable, is  the  accumulation  of  household  wastes  in 
a  tight  receptacle  or  cesspool ;  but  the  latter  should 
be  built  with  particular  care,  made  thoroughly  secure 
against  leakage,  located  as  far  away  as  possible  from 
the  dwelling,  and  efficiently  ventilated.  It  should  be 
of  small  dimensions,  and  it  is  better  to  build  it  in  two 
compartments,  the  first  of  which  retains  the  solids  and 
must  be  frequently  emptied,  cleaned  and  disinfected; 
while  the  second  larger  compartment  holds  the 
liquids,  which  must  be  disposed  of  on  the  ground,  on 
the  lawn,  or  in  the  vegetable  garden,  by  frequent 
pumping  out. 

It  is  a  mistaken  notion  frequently  met  with  in  rural 
or  suburban  districts  where  water  closets  are  not 
used,  that  slop  water  from  bed-rooms  and  kitchens 
cannot,  per  se,  become  a  dangerous  nuisance.  We 
find  such  liquid  wastes  disposed  of  by  running  them 
in  open  street  gutters  to  the  nearest  pond  or  brook, 
or  else  they  are  dumped  upon  the  ground  around  the 
dwelling,  especially  near  kitchen  windows.  The 
emanations  from  a  farmer's  back  yard  on  a  hot 
summer's  day  are  generally  extremely  nauseating 
and  unwholesome. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Another  not  less  dangerous 
nuisance  is  the  common  privy,  which  is  still  to  be 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  151 

found  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns,  and  is  the  rule  in 
villages  and  isolated  dwellings  having  no  general 
water  supply.  The  prevalent  form  of  privy  is  nothing 
but  a  large  hole  in  the  ground  a  few  feet  deep,  over 
which  is  erected  the  simplest  kind  of  a  shed,  provided 
with  a  rough  seat  with  a  hole.  Who  has  not,  on  a  hot 
summer's  day,  when  compelled  to  pass  near  such 
privy,  felt  the  offensive  and  truly  sickening  influence 
of  the  vile  emanations  from  an  accumulated  mass  of 
excrement  ?  Indeed,  it  is  not  surprising  that  we 
should  hear  so  much  now-a-days  of  ''malaria"  and 
"  fever  "  in  the  country  ! 

Another  method  of  house  drainage  extensively 
practiced  in  some  cities,  like  Philadelphia  and  St. 
Louis,  but  which  must  be  utterly  condemned,  is  to 
build  in  the  rear  of  the  yard  a  vault,  over  which  a 
privy  is  erected.  This  vault  is  provided  with  an  over- 
flow or  connection  to  the  street  sewer.  Into  this  runs  a 
waste  pipe  from  the  kitchen  sink,  which  also  receives 
the  rain-water  from  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  roof. 
The  excrement  which  accumulates  in  the  privy  vault 
is  supposed  to  be  washed  out  into  the  sewer  with  the 
flush  from  a  good  rainfall,  but-such  is  not  the  case — 
at  least  the  flushing  out  is  not  a  thorough  one.  Flush- 
ing these  vaults  from  a  yard  hydrant  by  means  of  a 
hose  is  generally  neglected,  and  frequent  stoppages 
between  the  vault  and  the  sewer,  or  further  on  in  the 
street  sewer  occur.  The  privy  vault  is  seldom  built 
thoroughly  tight,  consequently  there  is  danger  of 
soil  pollution  ;  and  even  where  it  is  tight  there  is 


152  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

always  a  poisoning  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  rear  yard 
with  vile  stenches.  Such  a  privy  vault  is  not  much 
better  than  a  common  privy,  and  should  not  be  tol- 
erated by  the  authorities. 

An  English  sanitary  engineer  has  truly  said  : 

An  open  privy  cesspool  is,  in  most  cases,  a  nuisance.  The  addi- 
tion of  small  quantities  of  water  to  effete  organic  matter  causes  fer- 
mentation and  the  liberation  of  the  gases  of  decomposition,  and 
therefore  all  such  matter  should  either  be  washed  away  with  plenty 
of  water,  or  water  should  be  wholly  excluded  from  it.  Either  an 
abundance  of  water  or  none  at  all  is  alone  safe  in  this  case. 

Wherever  cities  have  adopted  the  "  water-carriage" 
system,  the  use  of  some  kind  of  water  closet  appa- 
ratus, which  is  vastly  superior  in  point  of  comfort, 
decency  and  cleanliness,  should  be  made  imperative. 

The  admirable  words  of  Dr.  Simon,  from  his  book, 
"  Filth  Diseases  and  their  Prevention,"  are  quoted 
here  in  full  as  being  quite  to  the  point : 

There  are  houses,  there  are  groups  of  houses,  there  are  whole  vil- 
lages, there  are  considerable  sections  of  towns,  there  are  even  entire 
and  not  small  towns,  where  general  slovenliness  in  everything  which 
relates  to  the  removal  of  refuse  matter,  slovenliness  which  in  very 
many  cases  amounts  to  utter  bestiality  of  neglect,  is  the  local  habit: 
where,  within  or  just  outside  each  house,  or  in  spaces  common  to  many 
houses,  lies  for  an  indefinite  time,  undergoing  foetid  decomposition, 
more  or  less  of  the  putrefiable  refuse  which  house-life,  and  some 
sorts  of  trade-life  produce;  excrement  of  man  and  brute,  and  gar- 
bage of  all  sorts  and  ponded  slop  waters:  sometimes  lying  bare  on 
the  common  surface;  sometimes  unintentionally  stored  out  of  sight 
and  recollection  in  drains  or  sewers  which  cannot  carry  them  away; 
sometimes  held  in  receptacles  specially  provided  to  favor  accumula- 
tion, as  privy  pits  and  other  cesspools  for  excrement  and  slop  water, 
and  so-called  dust  bins,  receiving  kitchen  refuse  and  other  filth. 
And  with  this  state  of  things,  be  it  on  large  or  on  small  scale,  two 
chief  sorts  of  danger  to  life  arise:  one,  that  volatile  effluvia  from  the 
refuse  pollute  the  surrounding  air  and  everything  which  it  contains; 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  153 

the  other,  that  the  liquid  parts  of  the  refuse  pass  by  soakage  or  leak- 
age into  the  surrounding  soil,  to  mingle  there  of  course,  in  whatever 
water  the  soil  yields,  and  in  certain  cases  thus  to  occasion  the  dead- 
liest pollution  of  wells  and  springs.  To  a  really  immense  extent,  to 
an  extent  indeed  which  persons  unpracticed  in  sanitary  inspection 
could  scarcely  find  themselves  able  to  imagine,  dangers  of  these  two 
.sorts  are  prevailing  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  this  coun- 
try, not  only  in  their  slighter  degrees,  but  in  degrees  which  are  gross 
and  scandalous,  and  very  often,  I  repeat,  truly  bestial. 

While  it  cannot  be  denied  that  ill-devised  and  ill-man- 
aged water  closets  and  their  accompaniments  have  caused  filth  dis- 
eases to  a  very  large  extent,  a  far  larger  range  of  mischief  has  at- 
tached to  the  other  kinds  of  privy  arrangements:  and  of  all  the  filth 
influences  which  prevail  against  human  life,  privies  of  the  accumula- 
lative  sort  operate  undoubtedly  to  far  the  largest  extent. 

The  intention,  and,  where  realized,  the  distinctive  merit  of  a  sys- 
tem of  water  closets  is,  that  in  removing  excremental  matters  from 
the  house  it  does  so  with  perfect  promptitude  and  in  a  perfectly  neat 
and  complete  manner,  not  having  any  intervals  of  delay,  nor  leaving 
any  residue  of  filth,  nor  diffusing  any  during  its  operation;  and  where 
the  water  system  is  not  in  use,  these  objects  ought  still  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  be  secured.  Thus,  in  the  absence  of  water  closets,  evidently 
any  reasonable  alternative  system  ought  to  include  the  following  two 
factors,  brought  into  thoroughly  mutual  adjustment:  First,  proper 
catchment  apparatus  in  privies;  and  secondly,  proper  arrangements 
for  privy  scavenage. 

.  .  Now,  hitherto,  in  places  not  having  water  closets,  the  gen- 
eral practice  has  flagrantly  contravened  those  conditions.  Either  it 
has  had  no  other  catchment  apparatus  than  the  bare  earth  beneath 
the  privy  seat,  and  has  trusted  that  this  (receiving  the  excrements 
and  often  also  the  house  slops  on  to  its  natural  surface  or  into  a  hole 
dug  into  it)  would  absorb  and  drain  away  the  fluid  filth,  and  serve 
during  months  and  years  as  heaping  place  for  the  remainder;  or  else 
it  has  had,  as  supplement  to  the  privy,  a  large  enclosed  middenstead 
or  cesspool,  partly  or  entirely  of  brickwork  or  masonry,  intended  to 
retain  large  accumulations  of  at  least  the  solid  filth,  with  or  without 
the  ashes  and  other  dry  refuse  of  the  house,  and  in  general  dividing 
its  fluid  between  an  escape-channel,  specially  provided,  and  such 
soakage  and  leakage  in  other  directions  as  the  construction  has  un- 
designedly  or  designedly  almost  always  permitted.  Privies  such  as 
these,  have  not  been  meant  to  have  their  filth  removed  except  when 


154  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

its  mere  largeness  of  bulk  (exceeding  or  threatening  to  exceed  the 
limits  of  the  privy  pit  or  cesspool  or  midden)  might  mechanically 
make  removal  necessary,  or  else  when  there  might  happen  to  arise 
an  agricultural  opportunity  for  the  stuff;  and  public  scavengering  in 
relation  to  such  privies  has  either  had  no  existence,  or  has  been 
adapted  to  the  supposition  of  an  indefinite  local  tolerance  of  accu- 
mulation. All  this  accumulation,  with  its  attendant  exhalation  and 
soakage,  and  at  intervals  the  shoveling  and  carting  away  of  its  masses 
of  fcetid  refuse,  and  the  exposure  of  the  filth-sodden  catchment  sur- 
faces of  privy  pits  and  middens,  has  been,  as  needs  hardly  be  said, 
an  extreme  nuisance  to  those  in  whose  vicinity  it  has  been;  and 
sometimes  with  the  aggravating  condition  that,  because  of  the  situa- 
tion of  the  privy,  each  filth  removal  must  be  through  the  inhabited 
house.  What  nuisance  this  system  at  present  constitutes  in  innu- 
merable populous  places,  including  some  of  our  largest  towns,  can 
indeed  hardly  be  conceived  by  persons  who  do  not  know  it  in  opera- 
tion; and  the  infective  pollutions  of  air  and  water  supply,  which  it 
occasions  to  an  immense  extent  in  towns  and  villages  throughout  the 
country,  are  chief  means  of  spreading  in  such  places  some  of  the 
most  fatal  of  filth  diseases. 

Removal  of  Sewage. 

The  removal  and  disposal  of  household  wastes  is 
properly  accomplished  as  follows  : 

From  a  point  about  ten  feet  outside  of  the  cellar 
walls  the  house  sewer  may  consist  of  strong,  vitrified 
earthen  pipes,  or  of  cement  pipes,  but  where  the 
sewer  passes  near  a  well  or  spring,  iron  pipes  with 
caulked  joints  are  preferable. 

For  ordinary-sized  dwellings  and  lots,  a  pipe  sewer 
four  or  five  inches  in  diameter  will  prove  ample  to 
remove  the  house  sewage  and  the  largest  rainfall. 
The  more  the  size  of  the  drain  is  restricted  within  the 
limits  of  desired  capacity,  the  more  self-cleansing  will 
it  be.  I  take  the  following  useful  table  of  sizes  of 
drains  from  Denton's  "  Handbook  of  House  Sanita- 
tion : " 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


155 


TABLE  L* 


Diameter 
of  pipe 
in  inches. 

Velocity 
3  ft.  per  second. 

Velocity 
4!  ft.  per  second. 

Velocity 
6  ft.  per  second. 

Velocity 
9  ft.  per  second. 

Fall. 

D   "rt     ^ 

Fall. 

ci      .    G 

Fall. 

D  fp~2    tu 
rt      .  _C 

Fall. 

rt      .  ^C 

•J;£>  ^ 

•-;D  2 

'/ID    n 

£  •—  i  "* 

Q.s^ 

^** 

Q.sa 

G.s^ 

3 

i 

9 

12 

in  69 
in  92 
in  138 
in  207 
in  276 

64.8     I  in  30  4 
115.2     i  in  40.8 
259.2!    i  in  61.2 
594.0     i  in  92.0 
1051.2  i  in   122.4 

97-2 

172.8 
388.8 
891.0 

1577  0 

in  17.2 
in  23.0 
in  34-5 
in  51.7 
in  69.0 

129.6 
230.4 
518.4 
1188.0 

2102.4 

I  in  7.6 
i  in  10.2 
i  in  15-3 
i  in  23.0 
I  in  30.6 

194  4 
345-6 
777  6 
1782.0 
3I53-6 

The  discharge  given  refers  to  pipes  running  full. 
For  pipes  running  only  half  full,  the  velocity  remains 
the  same,  and  the  discharge  is  just  one-half  of  that 
given  in  the  table. 

The  inclination  of  the  house  sewer  should  be, 
wherever  possible,  not  less  than  L-inch  per  foot,  but 
even  a  fall  of  ^-inch  to  the  foot  will  cause  a  sufficient 
velocity  in  the  drain  to  remove  silt  and  water  closet 
matter.  If  the  locality  does  not  permit  the  pipe  to 
be  laid  on  this  grade,  a  proper  flushing  apparatus  for 
the  house  sew^er  must  be  provided. 

To  bring  the  sewer  out  of  reach  of  frost  it  should 
be  laid  in  a  trench  at  least  three  feet  deep.  It  must 
be  laid  in  perfectly  straight  lines.  Wherever  changes 
of  direction  occur,  these  should  be  effected  by  easy 
curves,  made  of  bent  pipes,  or  else  the  curve  should 
be  put  in  the  bottom  of  a  manhole  andthe  pipe  lines. 

*  Another  reliable  table  for  calculating  the  size  of  house  drains  is  given  in  W.  P. 
Gerhard's  "House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing,"  published  by  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand,  New  York,  Seventh  Edition,  1898. 

See  also  the  "  Diagram  of  Sewer  Calculations,"  constructed  by  the  author  and 
published  in  1882,  by  E  &  F.  N.  Spon,  London  and  New  York. 


156  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

kept  perfectly  straight  between  manholes.  Branch 
drains  should  enter  the  main  house  sewer  by 
Y-branches  so  as  to  join  the  flow  of  both  pipes  with- 
out causing  eddies.  Should  the  house  sewer  be  very 
long,  it  is  well  to  provide  means  for  occasional  inspec- 
tions, consisting  of  access  pipes  or  lamp  holes  at  dis- 
tances of  about  100  feet,  and  of  manholes  at  distances 
of  200  or  300  feet.  If  provided  with  open  gratings 
or  ventilating  covers,  manholes  perform  the  important 
task  of  ventilating  the  house  sewer  throughout  its 
entire  length. 

Vitrified  pipes  are  manufactured  of  various  kinds 
of  clay,  ground  in  a  mill  and  homogeneously  mixed. 
The  mixture  is  brought  to  a  press  and  passed  through 
dies,  from  whence  the  pipes  issue.  Smaller  sizes  are 
made  in  horizontal  presses,  while  the  larger  sizes  are 
preferably  made  in  upright  presses.  The  pipes  are 
now  ready  for  the  glazing,  and  here  two  processes 
may  be  distinguished,  the  salt-glazing  and  the  slip- 
glazing.  In  the  former  process  the  pipes  are  sub- 
jected to  a  very  high  temperature  in  a  kiln,  into  which 
some  salt  is  thrown,  which  creates  a  flux  on  the  pipe 
surface.  This  gives  to  the  pipe  its  glossy  appearance 
and  it  also  renders  the  pipe  more  impervious  and  not 
so  easily  affected  by  acids,  alkalines  or  sewage  gases. 
Slip-glazed  pipes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  made  by  dip- 
ping the  pipes  into  a  peculiar  glaze  called  slip,  and 
then  drying  them  in  a  kiln. 

Good  vitrified  pipes  must  be  circular  and  true  in 
section,  of  a  uniform  thickness,  perfectly  straight 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


157 


(this  is  very  important  to  insure  good  alignment), 
free  from  any  cracks  or  other  defects  ;  they  should  be 
hard,  not  porous,  and  of  a  highly  smooth  surface. 
The  thickness  of  good  ordinary  earthen  pipe  should 
average  as  follows: 

TABLE  II. 


Diameter   of 
pipe  in  inches. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

15 

18 

Thickness   of 

3 

1 

5 

ai 

3 

. 

, 

pipe  in  inches. 

* 

* 

16 

T 

8 

^ 

In  important  sewer  work,  pipes  made  somewhat 
heavier  than  stated  in  Table  II,  are  used. 

Vitrified  pipes  are  made  in  lengths  of  two  and  three 
feet,  either  plain  or  with  a  socket  end.  Many  engi- 
neers prefer  the  plain  or  ring  pipe,  which  is  laid  with 
sleeves,  as  this  allows  of  an  easy  exchange  of  a  single 
length  of  pipe  from  a  pipe  line  already  laid,  while, 
with  the  socket  pipe,  it  becomes  necessary  to  disturb 
several  lengths.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  pipes 
are  also  manufactured  with  half-sockets,  or  else  they 
are  made  plain  at  both  ends  and  are  bedded  with 
cement  in  earthen  chairs, 

It  is  very  important  that  vitrified  earthen  sewer 
pipes  should  have  sockets  of  sufficient  width  and 
depth  to  permit  of  making  proper  gasket  and  cement 
joints.  In  pipes  from  five  to  ten  inches  diameter, 
the  depth  of  the  hub  should  be  at  least  2\  inches,  and 
for  pipes  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  it  should  be 
three  inches.  The  width  of  the  annular  joint  space 
should  be  at  least  -|  inches.  Such  pipe  is  known  in 


158 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


the  market  as  the  "  deep  and  wide  socket  pipe,"  and 
it  enables  the  making  of  better,  stronger  and  more 
water-tight  joints. 

As  an  example,  I  give  in  Table  III  the  weights  and 
the  principal  dimensions  of  the  deep  and  wide  socket 
pipe,  made  in  three-foot  lengths,  and  in  sizes  from 
three  inches  up  to  twenty-four  inches,  by  the  Port- 
land Stone  Ware  Company,  of  Portland,  Maine. 

TABLE  III. 


Size  of  pipe. 

Weight  per 
foot. 

Thickness. 

Space  for 
cement. 

Depth    of 
Socket. 

3   inc 
4 

5 
6 
8 

10 
12 

hes. 

7lb 
10 

12 

17 
24 

s 

S. 
< 

Jin 
t 

i 
f 

i 
li 

ch. 

?  in 
i 
i 

! 
4 
1 
1 

ch. 

i^    inc 

i« 
*t 
*{ 
*l 
»l 

3 

hes. 

Pipes  in  three-foot  lengths  are  preferred  as  they  re- 
duce the  number  of  pipe  joints.  The  smaller  sizes  of 
pipe,  up  to  six  inches,  are,  however,  difficult  to  manu- 
facture owing  to  the  danger  of  warping  while  being 
burnt  in  the  kiln. 

The  pipe  works  manufacture  a  large  number  of  fit- 
tings for  earthen  pipes,  such  as  traps,  Y-branches, 
T-branches,  junction  pieces,  bends,  offsets,  etc. 

Cement  pipes,  though  not  as  universally  used  as 
vitrified  pipe,  have  been  manufactured  for  years  for 
drainage  purposes.  If  care  is  observed  in  their  manu- 
facture, and  if  best  Portland  cement  is  taken,  such 
pipes  can  be  made  very  strong  and  durable  and  of  a 
very  uniform  cross-section.  They  have  also  the  ad- 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  159 

vantage  of  not  warping,  as  the  smaller  sizes  of 
earthen  pipes  do  when  baked  in  the  kiln.  The  in- 
terior of  cement  pipes,  however,  is  not  as  smooth  as 
that  of  vitrified  earthen  pipes,  and  unless  well  flushed 
cement  drain  pipes  are  more  apt  to  become  covered 
with  a  slime  which  may  become  dangerous  when  it 
putrefies  and  fills  the  pipes  with  gases  of  decomposi- 
tion. 

Where  vitrified  pipes  are  used  for  sewerage  pur- 
poses, they  must  be  continuously  supported  to  prevent 


Fig.  48. — Proper  method  of  laying  earthen  drains. 

breakage,  and  grooves  should  be  cut  so  as   to  make 
the  pipes  rest  on  their  full  length.     (See  Fig.  48.) 
There  are  but  a  few  so-called  "  drain  lavers  "  who 

j 

thoroughly  understand  the  laying  of  pipe  sewers.  To 
insure  tightness  of  joints  it  is  well,  in  using  socket 
pipes,  to  ram  first  a  small  gasket  of  oakum  between 
spigot  and  hub,  which  will  prevent  the  cement  from 
entering  at  the  joints,  where  in  hardening  it  would 
create  an  obstruction.  To  do  so,  it  is  quite  necessary 
that  the  socket  should  be  very  deep.  The  remainder 
of  the  space  should  be  filled  with  a  mortar  consisting 
of  an  even  mixture  of  best  Portland  cement  and 
clean  sharp  sand.  The  cement  and  sand  should  be 


l6o  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

thoroughly  mixed  dry,  and  then  wetted  up  only  as 
needed.  No  lime  should  ever  be  used  in  this  mixture, 
nor  should  any  cement  be  used  that  has  begun  to  set. 
Cement  is  also  wiped  in  front  of  the  joint  in  the  form 
of  a  bevel. 

Before  refilling  the  trench  it  is  to  be  recommended 
to  test  the  pipes  and  joints  by  hydraulic  pressure,  by 
closing  the  main  outlet  of  the  house  sewer  and  filling 
the  pipes  with  water.  Considering  the  usual  wretched 
manner  of  laying  house  drains,  such  tests  seem  to  be 
extremely  necessary.  Contrary  to  popular  opinion 
vitrified  pipes  with  well  cemented  joints  are  perfectly 
able  to  stand  some  internal  pressure.  Some  years 
ago  I  learned  of  a  pipe  line  in  Wurtemberg,  Germany, 
4,020  metres  (2-^  miles)  long,  and  ten  centimetres 
(four  inches)  in  diameter,  supplying  a  railroad  tank 
with  sixty  cubic  metres  of  w^ater  daily,  which  line 
was  subject,  in  several  places,  to  a  head  of  water  of 
eight  metres  (26.25  feet),  equivalent  to  11.4  pounds 
pressure  per  square  inch.  In  laying  this  line  of  vitri- 
fied pipe,  each  pipe  was  carefully  inspected  and  tested 
under  seventy-five  pounds  pressure  before  use.  After 
laying  the  pipe  and  after  the  cement  in  the  joints  had 
hardened,  the  line  was  tested  in  sections,  each  section 
being  subjected  for  fifteen  minutes  to  a  pressure  of 
sixty  pounds. 

Such  severe  tests  of  the  external  sewerage  corre- 
sponding to  the  testing  of  the  internal  pipe  system 
by  water,  will  secure  work  of  a  quality  and  character 
as  is  desired  for  sanitary  reasons,  namely,  a  per- 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  l6l 

fectly  water-tight  conduit,  without  any  joints  through 
which  sewage  may  leak  out  or  sub-soil  water  enter. 

To  secure  a  water-tight  joint  under  unusually  diffi- 
cult conditions,  such  as  surface  or  tidewater  in  sewer 
trenches,  etc.,  various  pipes  with  patent  joints  have 
been  made;  for  instance,  the  "  Stanford  Patent  Joint 
Pipe,"  which  has  rings  of  some  bituminous  compound 
cast  on  the  spigot  end,  and  in  the  socket  of  each  pipe. 
Just  before  using  them  the  parts  to  be  jointed  are 
greased,  and  then  the  spigot  end  carefully  and  truly 
entered  into  the  socket. 

To  facilitate  future  inspections  and  to  remove 
occasional  obstructions,  it  is  to  be  recommended  to 
keep  a  correct  and  detailed  record  of  all  drains,  their 
sizes,  depths  and  rate  of  fall,  the  location  of  all  traps, 
Y-branches,  manholes,  lampholes,  vent  openings, 
junctions,  bends,  etc. 
Disposal  of  Sewage. 

The  house  sewer  accomplishes  the  instant  removal 
from  a  building  of  its  liquid  and  semi-liquid  wastes. 
The  next,  and  in  some  respect  more  important,  ques- 
tion is,  how  shall  these  foul  wastes  be  disposed  of  ? 

In  the  case  of  city  dwellings  we  generally  find  in 
the  principal  thoroughfares  provision  made  for  public 
sewers.  But  only  in  few  cities  are  the  sewers  built 
as  they  should  be,  in  accordance  with  a  regular  "sys- 
tem," designed  and  laid  out  by  men  of  large  experi- 
ence w^ho  are  well-qualified  in  this  special  branch  of 
civil  engineering.  Doubtless  there  is  much  room  for 
improvement  in  the  line  of  sewer  planning  and  con- 


l62  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

struction,  but  as  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  discuss  "the 
sewerage  of  cities  "  in  this  volume,  the  subject  cannot 
be  dwelt  upon  at  length. 

Connection  between  house  and  street  sewers  should 
always  be  made  by  competent  workmen,  according 
to  rules  and  under  the  supervision  of  sewer  inspec- 
tors, employed  by  the  city.  Wherever  a  new  system 
of  sewers  is  being  constructed,  it  is  desirable  to  pro- 
vide special  house  connection  pieces  for  every  lot  and 
dwelling  on  both  sides  along  the  lines  of  the  street 
sewers,  and  sometimes  the  branches  for  each  house 
are  at  once  run  up  to  the  curb  line.  This  practice  has 
much  to  recommend  it,  for  it  does  away  with  the 
usual  annoying  and  detrimental  breaking  up  of  the 
street  pavement. 

In  all  cases  where  sewers  are  built  by  the  city,  the 
final  disposal  of  the  sewage  is  a  matter  in  which  the 
city  authorities  are  more  directly  concerned  than  the 
individual  householder.  The  latter's  work  stops  at 
the  junction  between  house  and  street  sewer. 

In  cities,  towns,  villages  or  hamlets  which  have  no 
sewers  the  case  is  entirely  different.  The  serious 
question  presents  itself  in  such  cases  .to  every  house- 
owner  or  tenant,  how  to  dispose  of  the  liquid  wastes 
of  his  household  without  creating  a  nuisance  on  his 
own  or  the  neighbor's  premises. 

In  towns  or  villages  where  the  houses  are  built 
closely  together,  there  is  scarcely  a  remedy  for  the 
evil,  other  than  to  abolish  the  disgusting  and  health- 
endangering  cesspools  in  the  rear  of  houses,  and  to 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  163 

build,  by  united  action  of  the  citizens,  a  complete  and 
well-planned  system  of  sewers. 

In  suburban  or  rural  districts,  and  in  the  case  of 
isolated  buildings  with  ample  and  suitable  grounds 
about  them,  the  question  can,  fortunately,  be  easily 
solved  in  most  cases,  without  incurring  the  expense 
of  building  sewers,  the  proportionate  cost  of  which 
for  each  house  would  be  unusually  large  for  scattered 
dwellings. 

A  leaching  cesspool  in  a  free  and  porous  soil  can 
sometimes  be  used  without  immediate  danger  to  the 
house  or  to  the  occupants  for  whom  it  is  intended  or 
to  its  surroundings,  provided  it  can  be  located  very 
far  from  the  house  and  on  a  much  lower  level.  Such 
an  arrangement  is  nevertheless  attended  with  some 
risk.  For  the  liquid  sewage,  which  seeps  away  into 
the  subsoil,  may  reach  a  subterranean  fissure  or 
stratum,  along  which  it  moves,  to  find  its  way  finally 
into  a  spring  or  well,  which  may  often  be  miles  away. 
Outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever,  caused  by  drinking 
water  contaminated  in  this  manner,  have  often  been 
traced  to  a  leaching  cesspool.  The  latter  should, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  always  objectionable  from 
a  health  point  of  view. 

Isolated  country  mansions,  located  along  the  bank 
of  a  river  or  stream  may  discharge  their  sewage  into 
the  same,  provided  the  water  course  has  a  swift  cur- 
rent and  carries  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  a  sufficiently 
large  volume  of  water  to  insure  a  thorough  and  ample 
dilution  of  the  sewage.  Such  a  method  of  disposal, 


164  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

while  permissible  in  the  case  of  single  habitations,  is 
not,  as  a  rule,  one  which  can  be  approved  for  institu- 
tions having  a  large  population,  or  for  large  summer 
hotels. 

The  difficulty  increases  for  buildings  on  tidal  estu- 
aries or  along  the  seashore,  for  while  the  amount  of 
sewage  discharged  would  be  small  as  compared  with 
the  vast  bulk  of  water  of  the  ocean,  experience  has 
shown  that  the  bathing  beaches  become  defiled  by  the 
sewage,  which  is  cast  up  by  the  tides.  The  direct  dis- 
charge of  sewage  into  the  sea  may  be  permitted  only 
when  there  are  strong  tidal  currents  carrying  the 
sewage  sufficiently  far  away  to  prevent  its  return  to 
the  shore.  A  plan  of  disposal,  which  can  often  be 
resorted  to  with  success  in  such  situations,  is  to  store 
the  sewage  temporarily  in  a  water-tight  sewage  tank, 
the  contents  of  which  are  discharged  at  about  one  or 
two  hours  after  the  tide  has  begun  to  ebb. 

Fig.  49  shows  the  method  of  sewage  disposal 
adopted  for  a  country  house  located  on  a  small  island 
on  the  north  side  of  Long  Island.  The  sewage  is  dis- 
charged into  a  tight  sewage  tank,  built  in  two  recep- 
tables,  the  first  one  intended  to  retain  all  solids  and 
kitchen  grease,  and  provided  with  a  submerged  over- 
flow to  carry  the  liquid  sewage  into  the  second  tank. 
The  outlet  of  the  latter  is  closed  by  a  gate-valve,  and 
the  tank  is  emptied  once  in  twenty-four  hours  by 
opening  the  gate  at  the  middle  of  the  ebb  tide.  The 
outfall  sewer  is  located  on  the  bank  of  a  tidal  inlet, 
through  which  the  outgoing  tide  runs  with  a  very 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


1 66 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


rapid  current.  Occasionally,  the  first  tank  is  emptied 
in  a  similar  manner,  by  means  of  the  other  gate-valve. 
When  the  tank  has  been  emptied,  the  gate-valve  is, 
of  course,  closed.  The  details  of  the  arrangement 
and  construction  of  the  sewage  tank  are  shown  in 


Fig.   50.     Once  each  season   both   tanks    should    be 
cleaned,  flushed  and  disinfected. 

The  only  proper  and  rational   method  of  sewage 
disposal  in  cases  where  a  free  discharge  of  the  sewage 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  1 67 

into  a  water  course  or  into  the  sea  is  not  permissible, 
is  to  return  to  the  soil  as  fertilizers  the  wastes  from 
the  household.  This  can  be  done  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  Whatever  the  method  adopted  may  be,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sewage  must  be 
applied  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  within  easy 
reach  of  the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  that  it  should  not  be  applied  in  such  quantities  as 
to  saturate  the  soil ;  in  other  words,  the  sewage  must 
not  be  too  much  diluted,  and  the  application  of  the 
sewage  to  the  land  must  be  intermittent. 

Both  surface  irrigation  and  sub-surface  irrigation 
have  been  successfully  employed  in  disposing  of 
household  wastes.  For  cottages  which  do  not  have 
a  large  area  of  available  ground  about  them,  the 
method  of  disposal  by  surface  irrigation  may  become 
offensive  to  sight  and  smell  during  the  hot  summer 
months.  The  disposal  by  sub-surface  irrigation  is 
free  from  these  objections,  but  requires,  on  the  other 
hand,  more  work  in  planning  and  laying  out  the  sys- 
tem, and  it  also  requires  the  laying  of  a  network  of 
distributing  drains  laid  under  and  near  the  surface, 
which  drains  occasionally  clog  up  and  require  taking 
up,  washing  and  relaying. 

Surface  irrigation  may  be  adopted  in  connection 
with  a  small,  well-ventilated  and  perfectly  tight  cess- 
pool or  sewage  tank,  on  the  top  of  which  is  set  a  small 
pump,  with  hose  attached,  by  means  of  which  the 
liquid  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  lawn  or  in  the 
kitchen  garden.  If  preferred,  a  stop-gate  may  be 


i68 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


placed  in  the  outlet  pipes  of  the  drain  from  the  cess- 
pool, carrying-  the  liquid  sewage  to  an  irrigation  field 
on  a  lower  level,  if  a  favorably  located  tract  of  land 
can  be  had.  As  soon  as  the  cesspool  becomes  filled, 
its  contents  should  be  discharged  by  opening  the  stop- 
valve.  The  capacity  of  the  cesspool  should  be  small 
and  the  waste  water  of  only  a  few  days  should  be 
stored  in  it.  It  should,  preferably,  contain  an  inter- 
cepting chamber  for  grease  and  solids.  Fig.  51  shows 
this  method  of  disposal  by  surface  irrigation  for  a 
cottage. 

The  second  method  of  sewage  disposal,  by  sub- 
surface irrigation,  has  always  appeared  to  me  to  be 
the  one  preferable  for  the  majority  of  isolated  dwell- 


^/%%^%££^^ 

Fig.  51> — Disposal  of  household  wastes  by  surface  irrigation. 

ings.      A    description  of   the   details   of  the  system 
may,  therefore,  not  seem  out  of  place. 

This  system  was  first  brought  into  use  in  England 
by  the  Rev.  Henry  Moule,  Vicar  of'  Fordington,  the 
well  known  inventor  of  the  earth  closet.  Sewage  dis- 
posal by  sub-surface  irrigation  has  been  extensively 
practiced  in  England  by  Mr.  Rogers  Field  and  Mr. 
J.  Bayley  Denton,  both  prominent  sanitary  engineers. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  169 

To  Col.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  is 
due  the  credit  of  having  introduced  the  system  in  the 
United  States,  about  twenty  years  ago  ;  first,  for  his 
own  house  in  Newport ;  subsequently  for  a  large 
number  of  country  houses  in  the  Eastern  States ; 
finally,  on  a  large  scale,  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage 
of  the  Reformatory  of  Women,  at  Sherburn,  Mass., 
and  at  the  Keystone  Hotel,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.  In  the 
past  years  it  has  been  adopted  by  many  civil  engi- 
neers and  architects  for  the  drainage  of  suburban 
and  country  homes,  and  has  received  the  endorse- 
ment  of  physicians,  sanitarians  and  Boards  of  Health. 
The  principle  of  the  sub-surface  irrigation  system  is 
briefly  this  :  The  porous  soil  next  to  the  surface  has 
the  power  of  .destroying  organic  substances  and  ren- 
dering them  innocuous,  partly  with  the  aid  of  the 
oxygen  and  the  bacteria  contained  in  the  pores  of  the 
sub-surface,  partly  by  means  of  the  vegetation,  since 
the  rootlets  of  grass  and  shrubs  take  up  nourishment 
from  these  organic  matters.  The  liquid  sewage,  from 
which  all  impurities  have  thus  been  removed,  settles 
away  and  becomes  still  more  clarified  by  filtration 
through  the  porous  or  underdrained  soil.  The  degree 
of  purification  is  such  that  the  water  removed  by 
underdrains  (land  drains),  is  generally  found  to  be 
quite  clear,  colorless,  free  from  taste  or  smell. 

All  suspended  organic  impurities  are  reduced  to 
harmless  elements  by  the  bacteria  attaching  to  the 
soil  filter,  and  during  the  intervals  between  consecu- 
tive discharges  oxidation  takes  place.  The  impor- 


I  JO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

tance  of  an  intermittent  action  becomes,  therefore,  at 
once  apparent.  If  this  is  secured,  the  upper  layers  of 
earth  are  enabled  to  take  up,  at  each  interval  between 
discharges,  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  and  prepare 
for  the  next  discharge.  The  discharge  is  also  made 
intermittent  in  order  to  prevent  the  ground  from 
becoming  saturated,  wet  and  swampy. 

This  intermittent  discharge  of  the  sewage  is  an 
essential  condition  of  all  systems  of  sewage  disposal 
whether  by  surface  or  sub-surface  irrigation,  and 
nearly  all  descriptions  of  such  systems,  of  which  I 
know,  lay  special  stress  upon  this  point. 

Mr.  Edward  S.  Philbrick,  C.  E.,  for  instance,  says 
in  his  pamphlet,  "The  Disposal  of  Sewage  by  Sub- 
Surface  Irrigation  "  : 

If  house  sewage  is  allowed  to  flow  directly  into  a  system  of  porous 
tiles  laid  under  the  surface,  the  fluid  parts  escape  at  every  joint  and 
soak  into  the  soil  ;  but  the  solid  matter,  which  may  not  have  become 
finely  divided,  is  apt  to  linger  in  the  pipes  and  soon  fill  them  up  so 
that  they  become  practically  useless  until  taken  up  and  cleaned.  In 
order  to  avoid  this  result,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  provide  a 
tank  or  tight  cesspool  in  which  the  solid  particles  of  the  sewage  may 
become  macerated  and  finely  divided  by  fermentation  before  enter- 
ing the  distributing  pipes.  Moreover,  if  such  a  tank  be  allowed  to 
overflow  continuously  by  a  driblet  into  the  porous  pipes,  they  become 
choked  even  then.  The  flow  must  therefore  be  made  intermittent, 
and  be  allowed  to  take  place  at  intervals  with  such  a  rush  as  to  fill 
the  whole  system  of  distributing  pipes  at  once  and  brush  away  any 
slight  obstructions  which  may  have  been  deposited  by  previous  dis- 
charges. There  are  two  methods  of  obtaining  this  result.  First,  by 
providing  a  stop-cock  or  gate  valve  in  the  outlet  pipe  where  it  leaves 
the  tank,  at  or  near  its  bottom,  to  be  opened  by  hand  when  the  tank 
is  full,  and  to  be  closed  again  when  empty.  Second,  by  a  syphon 
arranged  to  discharge  the  tank  automatically  when  filled. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  I  Jl 

Col.  Waring  speaks  of  the  necessity  of  intermittent 
action  as  follows  : 

So  far  as  the  sub-surface  system  is  concerned,  it  is  essential  to  suc- 
cess that  the  sewage  should  be  delivered  intermittently  and  at  con- 
siderable intervals.  .  .  .  The  essential  element  of  the  system  is 
the  flush  tank  which  will  retain  all  sewage  issuing  from  the  house 
during  the  intervals  between  two  successive  discharges  into  the 
drains.  This  ought  to  be  not  less  than  twenty- four  hours;  where  the 
soil  is  not  very  free  and  porous,  it  should  be  extended  to  as  much  as 
three  days,  according  to  the  increasing  closeness  of  the  soil.  The 
tank  should  be  automatic  in  its  action,  /.  e.,  it  should  not  require 
watching  or  manual  operation.  There  are  a  number  of  tanks  which 
answer  the  purpose. 

The  cardinal  difference  between  the  sub-surface 
irrigation  system  and  a  leaching  cesspool  is  this  :  In 
a  cesspool  the  amount  of  soil  used  for  the  purification 
of  the  sewage  is  quite  small  as  compared  \vith  the 
former  method,  where  the  surface  area  can  be  chosen 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  sewage  to  be  disposed 
of.  A  leaching  cesspool,  newly  built,  doubtless  ac- 
complishes some  purification  and  filtration  of  the 
household  wastes.  But  the  pores  of  the  soil  soon 
clog  up,  as  organic  matter  is  not  completely  oxi- 
dized at  a  greater  depth  and  also  because  the  aid  of 
the  vegetation  is  lost.  The  soil  gradually  becomes 
saturated  with  sewage  matter,  which  undergoes  a 
slow  process  of  decomposition,  during  which  many 
unwholesome  gases  are  generated.  These  gases  are 
given  off  at  the  surface  and  are  sucked  up  into  our 
dwellings,  especially  in  winter  time.  The  other  not 
less  serious  evil  due  to  leaching  cesspools,  is  caused 
by  the  sewage  soaking  unpurified  into  the  ground, 
thereby  threatening  to  pollute  our  water  supplies. 


172  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

A  sub-surface  irrigation  system  consists  essentially 
of  two  parts : 

First,  a  tight  receptacle  for  liquid  and  semi-liquid 
house  refuse,  from  which  the  water  is  discharged  at 
intervals  into  a  system  of  underground  tiles.  This 
receptacle  is  called  a  sewage  or  flush  tank  ; 

Second,  a  system  of  common  two  or  three-inch 
drain  tiles,  laid  with  open  joints,  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  permitting  the  liquid 
sewage  to  escape  at  each  joint,  to  be  partly  purified 
by  the  action  of  roots  of  grass  or  shrubbery,  and 
partly  oxidized  by  the  oxygen  attaching  to  the  par- 
ticles of  the  soil  near  the  surface. 

The  sub-irrigation  field  should  be  placed  remote 
from  the  house,  if  possible,  in  a  direction  from  which 
the  wind  blows  only  very  occasionally.  It  should  not 
be  located  near  a  well  or  a  spring.  It  may,  in  the  case 
of  small  cottages,  consist  of  only  a  single  line  of  tiles, 
or  it  may  contain  a  large  number  of  these,  this  depend- 
ing also  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  system 
works  best  in  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam,  but  even  in 
heavy  clay  soil  it  has  been  used  with  tolerable  success. 
If  the  land  is  apt  to  be  wet  it  must  be  thoroughly 
under-drained  by  a  system  of  deep  land  drains,  other- 
wise the  sewage  will  soon  come  out  at  the  surface  and 
convert  this  into  a  swamp.  Doubts  have  often  been 
expressed  as  to  the  working  of  the  system  in  winter 
time.  Experience  has  taught  that  the  distributing 
tiles  laid  close  to  the  surface  will  not  freeze  as  some 
would  expect,  the  temperature  of  the  sewage  being 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  I  73 

sufficiently  high  to  keep  the  sewage  in  the  pipes  in 
motion. 

In  order  to  explain  the  arrangement  of  a  sewage 
disposal  system  by  sub-surface  irrigation,  I  have 
shown  in  Figs.  52  and  53  the  plan  and  profile  of  a 
system  actually  carried  out  at  a  fine  country  mansion 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey.  The  plan,  Fig.  52,  shows 
the  main  six-inch  house  drain  leading  from  the  man- 
sion to  the  sewage  flush  tank.  Manholes  are  placed 
on  the  line  of  the  main  sewer  from  the  house  at  dis- 
tances of  about  250  feet  apart.  The  sewage  tank  is 
located  close  to  the  private  road,  but  hidden  from 
sight  by  shrubbery.  The  construction  of  the  tank  is 
shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  66.  From  it  a  four-inch  main 
conduit  conveys  the  sewage  at  each  discharge  of  the 
tank  to  the  sewage  irrigation  field.  This  is  a  nearly 
level  stretch  of  land,  divided  into  four  sections,  I,  II, 
III  and  IV,  each  of  which  contains  about  1,000  feet  of 
absorption  drains.  Valves  are  placed  near  the  main 
conduit,  and  enable  the  turning  of  the  sewage  into  any 
of  the  sections.  Ordinarily,  two  of  the  sections  are  in 
use,  and  the  others  are  resting  and  become  aerated  and 
purified.  The  absorption  drains  are  laid  at  distances 
of  five  feet  apart,  and  as  the  land  is  nearly  level,  the 
lines  are  practically  parallel  to  each  other.  The  pro- 
file in  Fig.  53  (in  which  the  vertical  heights  are  exag- 
gerated) shows  the  fall  of  the  sewer  from  the  house 
to  the  flush  tank,  and  from  the  latter  to  the  irrigation 
field.  At  the  lowest  end  of  the  sewage  conduit  a 
blowoff  pipe  and  gate-valve  are  provided. 


76 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


The  absorption  tile  drains  are  shown  in  Fig.  54,  and 
are  common  porous  land  tiles,  one  foot  long.  Form- 
erly two-inch  tiles  were  used,  but  later  experience  has 
shown  that  three-inch  tiles  give  better  results.  The 
tiles  are  laid  about  ten  or  twelve  inches  below  the  sur- 


Fig.  54. — Absorption  tiles,  with  gutters  and  caps. 

face  on  continuous  boards,  or  better  in  gutters  of 
earthenware,  which  must  be  accurately  laid  at  the  re- 
quired grade  in  the  trenches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  55.  If 
the  tiles  clog  up  they  can  be  taken  up  and  cleaned,  and 


Fig-  55- — Manner  of  laying  absorption  drains. 

the  relaying  in  the  gutters  is  a  rather  easy  matter, 
which  can  be  done  by  any  common  laborer.  There 
must  be  a  space  left  at  each  joint  of  about  one-fourth 
inch,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  sewage. 
To  protect  the  joint  from  earth  or  dirt  falling  from 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


177 


above,  small  caps  are  placed  over  the  tiles  at  each 

joint,  as  shown  in  Fig.  55. 

The  main  lines  are  four  inches  in  diameter,  and 
the  two  or  three-inch  lines  branch 
out  from  them  by  means  of  Tees 
or  Y-branches,  as  the  case  may 
be,  with  side  openings  opening  out 
from  the  bottom,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  56.  The  main  line  is  cemented 
tightly,  as  are  the  branches  in  the 
curved  part,  until  they  strike  the 
depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  from 
the  surface  (the  main  four-inch 


Fig.    56-Y-branchandTee- 
branch  for  absorption  drains. 


\  T~>*  i 

more).     Fig.  57  shows  a  cross-sec- 


tion through  the  tiles  as  laid  in  the  trench. 

The  fall  given  to  the  absorption  tiles  should  be  just 
sufficient  to  keep  the  sewage  in  motion  ;  from  two  to 
three  inches  per  100  feet  is  con- 
sidered ample  ;  the  main  drain 
from  the  flush  tank  to  the  irri- 
gation field  may  have  as  much 
fall  as  circumstances  will  per- 
mit, but  near  the  branches  for 
the  absorption  drains  the  fall 
should  be  limited  to  four  or  six  inches  per  100  feet, 
otherwise  the  sewage  would  tend  to  rush  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  field  and  overcharge  the  lower  lines 
of  the  drains  and  finally  ooze  out  at  the  surface.  The 
main  four-inch  drain  as  well  as  the  absorption  drains 


Fig.    57. — Cross-section    through    a 
trench,  with  absorption  drains. 


178  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

must  be  laid  with  a  perfectly  uniform  descent,  and 
much  of  the  success  of  the  system  will  depend  upon 
the  accuracy  with  which  this  part  of  the  work  is  laid 
out  and  constructed. 

Similar  arrangements  for -the  disposal  of  the  sewage 
from  country  houses  are  shown  in  Figs.  58  and  59. 


Fig.  58. — Plan  of  sub-surface  irrigation  system  on  level  ground. 

In  the  examples  illustrated  the  flush  tank  is  located 
at  such  a  distance  from  the  house  as  to  prevent  any- 
possible  annoyance  by  odors  or  otherwise,  and  its  out- 
let is  at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  allow  of  some  fall  to 
the  sewage  field.  The  sub-surface  irrigation  field  is 
laid  out  in  two  sections,  controlled  by  gate-valves, 
and  which  can  be  used  alternately. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


179 


In  the  case  of  smaller  houses,  the  sewage — consist- 
ing of  slop  water  only — may  be  distributed  by  carry- 
ing it  from  the  house  by  hand  and  pouring  it  out  of 
a  pail  into  an  open  hopper  or  receiver  of  wood  or 
earthenware  with  a  strainer,  from  the  bottom  of 


LA 


Fig.  59. — Plan  of  sub-surface  irrigation  field  on  slightly  irregular  ground 

which  hopper  a  line  of  pipe   leads   to  the  absorption 
drains.     (See  Fig.  60). 

For  small  cottages  having  only  a  kitchen  sink,  a 
receiving  tank  may  be  built  of  wood  and  located  at  a 
depth  beyond  the  reach  of  frost,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61. 
A  waste  pipe  from  the  sink  runs  into  the  tank,  and 
when  it  becomes  filled,  the  latter  may  be  emptied  by 


1 80  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

hand,  and  thus  an  intermittent  discharge  is  estab- 
lished. The  illustration  shows  a  ball  float,  which  is 
intended  to  open  the  outlet  automatically  in  case  of 
forgetfulness  of  the  occupant  of  the  cottage.  That 
part  of  the  tank  which  is  divided  off  by  a  partition, 
serves  as  a  grease  trap  to  prevent  grease  from  clog- 
ging the  absorption  tiles.  In  both  cases  illustrated  it 
is  supposed  that  no  water  closet  exists  in  the  house. 
The  construction  of  the  flush  tank  depends  upon 
local  conditions,  such  as  size  of  the  house,  number  of 
inhabitants,  character  of  the  foul  wastes  (slop  water 
only  or  slop  water  plus  excreta),  amount  of  water 

*r~x__ 

M^yv^x^J&v         .,      » 

&y^^J&iib&^if 

^E^E^^^^JgpE^gg 


Fig.  60. — Plain  hopper  for  slop  water  disposal. 

used,  etc.  The  size  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  have, 
if  possible,  one  daily  discharge  for  otherwise  the 
sewage  in  the  tank  might  commence  to  decompose, 
making  the  tank  practically  a  cesspool.  The  tank 
should,  in  any  case,  be  located  as  far  away  as  possible 
from  the  dwelling,  but  the  best  place  for  it  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  topography  of  the  grounds. 
The  sewage  field  can  be  located  at  any  distance  from 
the  flush  tank,  provided  there  is  sufficient  fall  between 
the  tank  and  the  field. 

For  larger  buildings  a  tight  sewage  tank  of  dimen- 
sions sufficient  to  hold  one  or  two  days'  sewage  must 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


181 


be  built.  Its  outlet  may  be  closed  by  a  gate-valve, 
operated  by  hand  labor.  The  arrangement  of  a  sew- 
age tank,  shown  in  Fig.  50, 
would  answer  this  purpose  quite 
well.  As  the  opening  and  clos- 
ing of  the  gate-valve  may  not 
always  be  done  with  regularity, 
an  automatic  arrangement  for 
the  discharge  is  preferable. 

The  capacity  of  a  flush  tank 
|  should  be  larger  than  the  com- 
s  bined  capacity  of  the  absorption 

03 

tiles.     Its  whole  contents  should 

j3 

I  be  suddenly  delivered  into  the 
1  pipes,  whereby  all  the  rows  of 
|  tiles  are  uniformly  charged. 

o 

^  Thus,  the  whole  of  the  absorp- 
^  tion  field  is  brought  into  use 
each  time  the  tank  is  emptied. 
The  purification  begins  imme- 
diately, the  clarified  liquid  soaks 
away  into  the  ground,  the  im- 
purities being  retained  by  the 
earth  filter,  where  they  are  de- 
stroyed by  oxidation,  air  enters 
the  pores  of  the  soil  and  pre- 
pares it  for  future  use,  while  the  tank  is  gradually 
filling  for  the  next  discharge. 

An  important  caution  for  all  cases  where  the  con- 
tents of  water  closets  are  to  be  disposed  of  combined 


~ 


1 82  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

with  slop  water,  is  to  intercept  all  solids  and  fatty 
waste  matters  which  should  not  be  discharged  with 
the  liquid  sewage  into  the  absorption  drains,  as  they 
would  in  a  short  time  clog  them  up  and  also  interfere 
with  the  action  of  the  flush  tank.  An  intercepting 
chamber  must,  therefore,  be  built  between  the  house 
and  the  flush  tank.  This  will,  in  a  certain  sense  and 
to  a  certain  degree,  be  a  cesspool ;  its  contents,  how- 
ever, are  frequently  changed,  it  can  be  kept  of  small 
dimensions  and  its  emptying  and  cleaning  (a  matter 
which  must  by  no  means  be  neglected)  is  much  more 
easily  effected.  It  should  be  built  of  best  hard  burnt 
brick,  laid  in  pure  Portland  cement,  and  the  tank  ren- 
dered perfectly  water-tight. 

For  sewage  disposal  works  for  large  institutions,  a 
straining  chamber  with  two  screens  of  vertical  bars 
may  be  substituted  for  the  intercepting  tank.  Where 
this  arrangement  is  adopted  it  is  important  that  the 
screens  be  cleaned  with  regularity  and  preferably 
daily. 

The  automatic  discharge  of  the  sewage  tank  is 
usually  effected  by  means  of  a  siphon,  but  sometimes 
a  tumbler  tank  is  used. 

A  flush  tank  built  of  brickwork  in  circular  shape, 
and  fitted  with  Rogers  Field's  annular  siphon,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  62.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  plan  and 
section,  the  flush  tank  is  constructed  in  two  chambers, 
the  first  being  a  settling  chamber  for  the  interception 
of  the  solids  and  grease,  while  the  second  is  the  liquid 
chamber,  in  which  the  siphon  is  usually  placed.  This 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAI  ,  183 

construction  has  been  used  to  a  large  extent  in  the 
earlier  works  of  sewage  disposal  for  isolated  country 
houses.  In  the  illustration,  A  represents  the  house 
drain,  B  the  intercepting  chamber,  C  the  liquid  or 


Fi#.  62 — Field's  flush  tank  with  settling  chamber  for  sewage  disposal. 

siphon  chamber,  both  of  which  are  covered  with  iron 
manhole  covers  D  ;  an  overflow  pipe,  F,  dips  at  least 
eighteen  inches  into  the  sew^age  of  the  first  chamber, 
to  prevent  solid  matters  or  greasy  scum  from  being 


Fig.  63.— Field's  annular  siphon. 

carried  over  into  the  liquid  chamber.  //  is  the  annular 
automatic  siphon  which  operates  the  discharge  of  the 
tank  at  regular  intervals  ;  A'  is  a  wire  screen,  Mis  the 
weir  or  dam  needed  to  start  the  action  of  the  siphon, 
L  is  an  inspection  pipe  closed  by  a  trap  screw  P, 


184  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

and  N  is  the  drain  leading  to  the  sewage  field. 
The  Field  siphon  is  shown  on  a  large  scale  in  Fig.  63. 
Its  operation  may  be  described  as  follows  :  When 
the  tank  fills  up  to  the  level  X,  the  sewage  begins  to 
overflow  through  the  inner  siphon  limb.  When  a 
bath  or  a  washtub  in  the  house  are  suddenly  emptied 
into  the  house  drain,  enough  sewage  overflows  to  seal 
the  bottom  of  the  siphon,  as  the  liquid  cannot  pass 
through  the  weir  M  as  fast  as  it  rushes  down  the 
siphon.  The  descending  column  of  liquid  carries  air 
with  it  and  establishes  gradually  a  partial  vacuum  in 
the  siphon.  The  air  pressure  in  the  tank  then  forces 
enough  liquid  over  to  charge  the  siphon,  which  is 
thereby  started  and  empties  the  contents  of  the  tank 
down  to  the  line  Z.  Air  now  enters  the  outer  limb 
of  the  siphon  and  breaks  the  same  completely  and  no 
further  discharge  occurs  until  the  tank  has  again 
become  filled.  To  protect  the  siphon  from  obstruc- 
tions by  paper  or  grease,  it  is  advisable  to  place 
around  it  a  screen  of  galvanized  iron  wire  of  one-half 
inch  mesh.  Even  with  this  protection  the  siphon 
needs  occasional  cleaning.  To  remove  obstructions 
in  the  weir,  an  inspection  handhole  Pis  placed  over  it. 
The  construction  of  the  Field  annular  flush  tank 
siphon  was  subsequently  modified  by  Col.  Waring, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  64.  It  is  best  described  in  the  words 
of  Col.  Waring  : 

The  siphon  consists  essentially  of  the  following  elements:  i.  A 
two-inch  iron  pipe,  set  with  its  hub  downward  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  and  reaching  to  the  height  to  which  the  tank  is  to  be  filled. 
2.  A  six-inch  iron  pipe  set  with  its  hub  upward  and  closed  at  the  top 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.  185 

with  a  casting  carrying  a  handle,  and  leaded  into  place  after  the 
usual  manner  of  soil  pipe  jointing.  The  lower  end  of  the  six-inch, 
pipe  rests  on  three  standards  rising  from  a  circular  piece  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tank.  This  constitutes  the  siphon  proper,  the  annular 


Fig.  64  —Plan  and  section  of  modified  Field's  sewage  flush  tank. 

space  between  the  six-inch  pipe  and  the  two-inch  pipe  being  the  re- 
ceiving limb,  and  the  two-inch  pipe  being  the  discharging  limb. 
The  water  enters  between  the  standards,  rises  to  the  top  of  the  two- 
inch  pipe,  flows  over  into  it  and  is  discharged  through  it.  The  lower 


l86  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

end  of  this  pipe  delivers  into  a  Rogers  Field  weir,  a  single  casting  of 
peculiar  construction,  so  arranged  that  with  an  abundant  flow  the 
outlet  of  the  two-inch  pipe  is  sealed.  The  contained  air  is  removed 
by  the  falling  water,  setting  up  a  true  siphonage  action'  which  con- 
tinues until  the  liquid  in  the  tank  is  reduced  to  the  bottom  of  the  six- 
inch  pipe — the  intake  of  the  receiving  limb.  At  this  point  air  is 
taken  into  the  receiving  limb  and  the  flow  through  the  siphon  is 
stopped.  The  contents  of  the  two-inch  pipe  continue  to  flow 
through  the  weir  piece  in  which  the  water  soon  falls  and  admits  air 
into  the  discharging  limb.  This  causes  the  siphon  to  be  completely 
emptied  and  no  further  flow  can  take  place  until  the  tank  is  again 
filled  to  the  overflow  point.  In  constructing  the  tank,  the  siphon  is 
set  in  its  centre  for  convenient  access  to  it  through  the  manhole  over 
it.  The  receiving  limb  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  readily  lifted 
for  opening'the  discharging  limb  to  inspection.  In  replacing  it,  care 
should  be  taken  to  rest  it  securely  on  the  three  standards. 

Fig".  65  illustrates  in  plan  and  elevation  the  con- 
struction of  a  sewage  flush  tank  as  adopted  by  the 
writer  in  more  recent  works  of  sewage  disposal  for 
country  houses.  It  will  be  se*en  that  the  flush  tank 
differs  from  the  examples  previously  illustrated  in 
having  the  siphon  placed  outside  of  the  liquid  cham- 
ber in  a  separate  circular  compartment  made  access- 
ible by  a  manhole.  The  intercepting  or  settling  cham- 
ber does  not  differ  much  from  the  others  shown.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  manholes  are  formed  of  vit- 
rified pipe  of  large  diameter.  The  overflow  pipe  con- 
necting both  chambers  is  deeply  trapped.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  first  chamber  is  rounded  to  facilitate 
cleaning.  The  bottom  of  the  sewage  chamber  is 
pitched  towards  the  funnel-shaped  mouth-piece  of 
the  siphon. 

The  automatic  siphon  shown  is  the  Rhoads-Will- 
iams  siphon,  which  being  placed  entirely  outside  of 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


i87 


the  tank,  is  not  so  easily  fouled  and  does  not  become 
obstructed.  To  provide  against  this  remote  contin- 
gency, the  liquid  chamber  is  provided  with  an  over- 


flow  pipe,  joining  the  outlet  pipe  beyond  the  siphon. 
Ordinarily  this  overflow  pipe  does  not  come  into 
action.  The  intercepting  chamber  should  be  emptied 


1 88  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  cleaned  at  least  once  a  month,  and  the  accumu- 
lated scum  and  deposit  removed  and  buried  in  the 
ground. 

Fig.  66  shows  still  another  construction  of  the 
sewage  flush  tank,  which  has  been  adopted  by  the 
writer  with  great  success  at  a  number  of  country 
places.  The  intercepting  tank  is  built  circular  in 
shape,  and  has  in  the  bottom  a  cross  wall  near  its 
overflow  pipe,  which  prevents  flocculent  matter  from 
being  agitated  and  carried  over  into  the  liquid  cham- 
ber. The  sewage  chamber  is  built  oblong,  with  a 
narrow  inlet.  In  this  is  placed  a  galvanized  iron  wire 
basket  or  screen  of  one-inch  mesh,  about  twenty-four 
inches  square  and  closed  at  bottom  and  sides,  but 
open  at  the  top.  The  overflow  pipe  delivers  all  sew- 
age through  this  basket,  which  is  intended  to  retain 
any  matters  drawn  over  from  the  settling  chamber. 
The  basket  can  be  readily  lifted  up  by  means  of  han- 
dles, and  should  be  cleaned  at  frequent  intervals. 
The  sewage  tank  is  built  of  brick,  laid  in  Portland 
cement.  Where  circumstances  permit,  it  is  desirable 
to  line  the  inside  walls  of  the  tank  with  glazed  bricks 
or  with  slabs  of  slate.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  is 
graded  towards  the  funnel  inlet  of  the  siphon,  which 
is  a  modified  Rhoads-Williams  automatic  siphon. 
Its  action  depends  upon  the  sudden  releasing  of  com- 
pressed air  confined  between  the  inlet  end  and  the 
deep  trap  at  its  outlet.  As  soon  as  the  air  has  been 
compressed  in  the  siphon  to  such  a  degree  as  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  water  seal  in  the  auxiliary 


190  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

trap,  the  water  in  the  latter  is  blown  out,  and  as  this 
releases  the  confined  air,  the  siphon  is  started  by  the 
head  of  water  which  has  accumulated  in  the  sewage 
tank,  and  which  reaches  a  point  several  inches  above 
the  inner  line  of  the  top  bend  of  the  siphon.  The 
siphoning  action  is  started  quite  rapidly,  and  contin- 
ues until  air  is  introduced  at  the  funnel-shaped  inlet 
and  breaks  its  action.  The  flow  then  ceases  com- 
pletely until  the  tank  again  fills  up. 

The  sewage  chamber  is  covered  with  wooden  cov- 
ers, made  in  several  sections.  Where  the  flush  tank 
is  located  at  a  distance  from  the  house,  and  where  it 
is  screened  from  view  by  a  row  of  evergreens,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  leave  the  covers  open  for  the  ventilation 
of  the  tank.  A  flush  tank  constructed  in  this  man- 
ner is  also  much  more  readily  cleaned  than  tanks 
which  are  arched  over  permanently. 

The  disposal  of  household  wastes  is  a  large  subject 
which  might  well  demand  a  treatment  in  a  special 
volume,*  and  since  it  was  not  my  intention  to 
describe  all  the  systems  of  sewage  disposal  for  coun- 
try houses  with  great  minuteness,  I  have  not  men- 
tioned many  details,  nor  given  rules  for  proportion- 
ing the  capacity  of  the  sewage  tank  to  the  size  of  the 
house,  of  the  area  of  the  irrigation  field  and  the  num- 
ber of  feet  of  distribution  drain  tiles  to  the  size  of  the 
tank.  The  distance  between  the  rows  of  tiles  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are 

*  See  the  author's  book    "The   Disposal  of   Household   Wastes."     New   York: 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  1890. 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL.          IQI 

laid,  etc.  All  these  matters  require  judgment,  skill 
and  experience  on  the  part  of  the  designer  of  the 
system.  Local  conditions  will  largely  determine  the 
design  and  arrangement  of  the  tank  and  the  laying 
out  of  the  irrigation  field. 

For  small  cottages  having  little  or  no  plumbing, 
earth  closets  should  be  adopted  in  place  of  the  usual 
unsanitary  and  health-endangering  privy.  They  are 
simple  and  cleanly  in  operation,  entirely  inoffensive 
in  use  and  well  adapted  to  prevent  danger  to  the 
health  of  the  cottage  occupants  so  frequently  caused 
by  the  emanations  from  accumulations  of  putrefying 
excreta.  As  my  remarks  are  limited  to  the  disposal 
of  excrements  from  single  buildings,  I  shall  not  dis- 
cuss the  extent  of  the  applicability  of  the  dry-earth 
system  to  villages  or  large  communities. 

"The  Dry- Earth  System,"  to  quote  from  Dr. 
Buchanan's  officicial  report  made  in  1869,  "consists 
in  the  application,  with  the  greatest  procurable  detail, 
of  dry  earth  to  fresh  human  excrement,  and  in  the 
subsequent  removal  and  use  of  the  mixture  for  agri- 
cultural purposes."  Although  known  in  a  general 
way  since  centuries,  the  use  of  dry  earth  for  the  dis- 
posal of  excreta  originated  practically  with  the  Rev. 
Henry  Moule,  Vicar  of  Fordington,  who  also  devised 
the  sub-surface  irrigation  system  for  the  disposal  of 
slop  water.  Dry  earth  possesses  in  a  high  degree, 
the  power  of  deodorizing  and  disinfecting  human 
excreta.  A  pound  and  a  half  of  dried  and  finely 
sifted  earth  is  considered  sufficient  for  the  average 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

dejection.  The  quality  of  the  earth  used  is  of  great 
.importance.  Gravel  and  sand  are  useless  in  this  res- 
pect, chalk  is  not  adapted  for  this  purpose,  while  clay 
is  quite  a  fit  material.  But  the  best  earth  is  that  of 
a  loamy  character,  such  as  garden  earth  or  vege- 
table humus,  which  already  contain  some  organic 
matter.  The  same  quantity  of  earth  can  be  used  over 
again  several  times,  provided  it  is  thoroughly  dried. 
Numerous  mechanical  contrivances  have  been  de- 
vised to  throw  earth  in  proper  quantities  and  in  the 
right  manner  upon  the  excreta  deposited  in  a  reser- 
voir under  the  closet  seat.  One  of  the  simplest 
arrangements  for  the  use  of  small  cottages  is  the  one 
shown  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  67.  The  closet  has  a  box 
containing  dried  and  well  sifted  earth,  which  is 
thrown  upon  the  excreta  by  means  of  a  hand-scoop 
after  each  use.  The  excreta  should  fall  into  a  plain 
box  or  pail,  or  else  into  a  tank  on  wheels  placed  under 
the  seat.  The  illustration,  however,  shows  a  tightly 
cemented  vault,  entirely  above  ground,  open  and 
accessible  at  the  rear  for  cleaning  out.  From  the 
vault  the  fertilizing  mixture  should  be  removed  at 
frequent  intervals  to  be  dug  under  the  ground.  It  is 
decidedly  preferable  not  to  locate  an  earth  closet 
inside  of  a  dwelling.  Unless  very  strict  attention  is 
paid  to  the  apparatus,  it  is  apt  to  become  offensive. 
A  plain  shed  may  be  erected  quite  close  to  the  rear 
of  the  house  if  desired,  and  made  accessible  by  means 
of  a  covered  walk,  to  prevent  exposure  in  cold 
\veather.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have 


SEWAGE    REMOVAL    AND    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL. 


193 


rain   water    drip  into    the    cemented  vault,   for   this 
would  be  sure  to  create  a  nuisance. 

Under  and  in  front  of  the  seat,  in  Fig.  67,  is  shown 
a  funnel,  intended  to  catch  and  remove  the  'urine  by 


Fig.  67. — Plain  earth  closet. 


means  of  a  small  pipe  leading  to  the  slop  water  tank. 
Although  I  am  aware  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
all  urine  from  the  excreta,  I  am  strongly  inclined  to 


194  SANITARY    ENGINEERING,  OF    BUILDINGS. 

believe,  and  practical  experience  tends  to  prove,  that 
such  a  separation  lessens  the  possibility  of  an  earth 
closet  becoming-  offensive. 

In  my  judgment  there  exists  in  no  case  a  sound 
excuse  for  storing  the  human  filth  in  the  usual  leach- 
ing, unventilated  cesspool,  or  in  a  privy  placed  in 
close  proximity  to  the  household,  for  these  constitute 
the  best  means  for  breeding  or  multiplying  disease 
germs  or  spreading  disease  in  case  the  seed  should 
reach  them.  A  mass  of  putrescent  human  filth  stored 
beneath  or  near  a  dwelling  has  well  been  compared 
to  a  powder  magazine,  for  one  single  little  spark — a 
germ  in  the  stool  of  a  typhoid  fever  patient — may 
suffice  to  create  vast  harm  and  destruction. 


VI. 

THE  LEADING  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENTIFIC 
HOUSE  DRAINAGE  AND  SANI- 
TARY  PLUMBING.* 


Although  there  is  little  to  be  said  on  this  subject 
that  can  be  considered  quite  new,  because  sanitary 
house  drainage  has  been  repeatedly  and  exhaustively 
discussed  by  leading  sanitarians,  still  the  writer  feels 
that  even  at  the  risk  of  repetition  of  what  he  has  said 
in  former  writings,  the  principles  of  safe  sanitary 
drainage  cannot  be  too  often  tersely  stated. 

There  appears  to  be  one  reason  in  particular  which 
makes  it  desirable  to  dwell  upon  these  principles.  It 
is  often  asserted  that  different  authorities  on  sanitation 
do  not  agree  as  to  the  fundamental  requirements  of 
sanitary  house  drainage  and  that,  this  being  the  case, 
it  is  wiser  to  remain  distrustful.  I  contend  most  em- 
phatically that  this  is  a  misconception,  and  my  object 
in  writing  these  pages  will  be  sufficiently  attained  if  I 
succeed  in  demonstrating  the  fallacy  of  this  popular 
belief,  and  in  convincing  my  readers  that  any  differ- 
ences of  opinion  which  still  exist,  refer  altogether  to 
some  details  of  execution,  and  not  to  the  principles 


*  This  article  on  the  "  First  Principles  of  Scientific  House  Drainage  and  Plumb- 
ing Work  "  was  originally  contributed  to  the  columns  of  the  Metal  Worker,  and  in 
order  to  stimulate  further  progress  in  sanitary  house  drainage  it  was  subsequently 
issued  in  pamphlet  form. 


196  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

which  should  guide  us  in  the  proper  arrangement  of 
plumbing  and  house  drainage  work. 

It  seems  also  desirable  to  preface  the  present  article 
with  the  statement  that  in  it  I  refer  exclusively  to  the 
modern  American  plumbing  and  drainage  practice. 
The  English  practice,  in  laying  out  plumbing  work, 
owing  to  differences  in  climatic  conditions,  differs 
from  our  own  in  many  important  particulars.  Hence 
no  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to  apply  the 
rules  derived  from  English  standard  text-books  on 
plumbing  and  house  drainage  to  works  carried  out  in 
our  own  climate.  Yet  this  is  often  done,  particularly 
by  people,  who,  without  practical  experience  and 
technical  training  have  acquired  their  limited  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  merely  by  reading  the  English 
text-books, 

We  may  consider  the  drainage  and  plumbing  sys- 
tem of  a  building  as  being  composed  of  the  following 
parts  and  sub-divisions,  viz : 
i. — THE  PIPE  SYSTEM. 

(#)  The  Sewer  System,  embracing  the  house 
drains,  soil  pipes,  waste  pipes  and  vent  pipes. 
The  Storm  water  and  Sub-soil  water  System, 
embracing  rain  water  conductors,  yard 
drains,  area  drains,  court  drains,  cellar  floor 
drains  and  sub-soil  drains. 

The  Disconnected  Pipe  System,  embracing 
safe  wastes,  tank  or  other  overflow  pipes, 
refrigerator  waste  pipes,  boiler  blow-offs,  tell- 
tales, floor  drains,  discharge  pipes  from  auto- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.  197 

matic  cellar  drainers,  waste  pipes  from  foun- 
tains in  conservatories,  drip  pipes  from  house 
filters,  etc. 

(cT)  The  Supply  System,  comprising  the  hot,  cold 
and  circulation  pipes,  the  cisterns,  tanks, 
boilers,  pumps,  valves  and  faucets. 

(e)  The  Gas-piping  System.* 

2  — THE  TRAP  SYSTEM. 
3. — THE  FIXTURE   SYSTEM. 

In  considering  the  principles  and  rules  which  gov- 
ern the  scientific  execution  and  arrangement  of  plumb- 
ing work,  I  shall  endeavor  to  demonstrate  the  prac- 
tical application  of  these  rules  to  each  of  the  above 
systems  and  its  sub-divisions. 

I.  Soundness  of  Material. 

The  first  principle  is  the  soundness  of  all  materials 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  work.  In  other 
words,  the  pipes,  the  traps  and  the  fixtures  must  be 
durable,  strong,  cleanly,  non-absorbent  and  non-cor- 
rosive. 

For  outside  house  drains  and  sewers  well-glazed 
terra  cotta  socket  pipes  should  be  used.  The  pipe 
should  be  of  the  quality  known  as  double  strong, 
which  comes  in  lengths  of  three  feet,  thus  reducing 
the  number  of  pipe  joints  and  the  incidental  chances 


*  The  gas-piping  system  is  included  by  me  for  two  reasons.  First,  because  the 
gas-piping  of  a  house  is  in  nearly  all  cases  executed  as  a  part  of  the  plumbing 
work.  Second,  because  it  is  quite  important,  from  a  health  point  of  view,  to  have 
the  gas-pipe  system  sound  and  tight  and  scientifically  arranged,  although  this  mat- 
ter is  as  yet  hardly  sufficiently  appreciated  by  the  general  public. 


198  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

of  leakage.  One  important  feature  concerning  vitri- 
fied pipe,  is  the  shape  and  size  of  the  socket,  for  upon 
it  depend  the  strength  and  durability  of  the  pipe- 
joint.  Until  quite  recently,  the  pipe  hubs  were  not 
manufactured  of  sufficient  diameter  and  depth  to 
enable  the  drain-layer  to  insert  a  gasket  of  oakum 
and  the  proper  quantity  of  Portland  cement  mortar, 
but  now  such  improved  pipe  is  being  extensively 
manufactured  and  should  be  given  the  preference 
wherever  first-class  work  is  expected. 

All  soil,  waste,  drain  and  vent  pipes  inside  of  a 
building  should  be  of  extra  heavy  cast,  or  of  heavy 
wrought  iron.  The  cast-iron  pipe  should  be  free  from 
sand-holes,  cracks,  flaws  or  other  defects,  the  hubs  of 
the  pipe  should  be  very  heavy  and  deep  for  caulking 
purposes,  and  it  is  well  to  use  only  pipe  and  fittings 
which  have  been  tested  by  hydrostatic  pressure. 
With  such  "tested"  pipe  I  can  see  no  great  risk  in 
using  tarred  pipe,  always  provided  the  tarring  is  ap- 
plied after  the  test  has  been  carried  out  at  the  foun- 
dry. For  many  reasons  I  prefer  such  tarred  or  asphalt- 
coated  pipe,  in  particular  for  pipes  laid  underground, 
as  well  as  for  vent  pipes  and  the  extensions  of  soil 
and  waste  pipes.  Another  article  which  has  many 
merits  on  sanitary  grounds,  is  the  porcelain-lined 
soil  pipe. 

The  question  of  protecting  pipes  from  rust  and  cor- 
rosion is  still  more  important  in  the  case  of  wrought 
iron  pipes  used  for  house  drainage  purposes.  If  the 
welded  seams  of  such  wrought  iron  pipes  are  prop- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          199 

erly  tested  under  pressure  at  the  pipe  mills,  I  know 
of  no  good  reason  why  the  pipes  should  not  be  pro- 
tected by  asphalting-,  galvanizing  or  by  the  rustless 
process.  Plain  wrought  iron  pipe,  owing  to  its  ex- 
treme liability  to  corrosion,  is  certainly  not  well 
adapted  for  underground  sewage  pipe  conduits,  nor 
is  it  at  all  advisable  to  use  such  plain  wrought  iron 
pipe  for  vent  pipes  in  buildings. 

The  principle  of  soundness  of  material  requires  also 
that  all  the  parts  of  a  pipe  system  be  of  a  uniform 
character,  hence  vent  pipe  extensions  above  the  high- 
est fixtures  should  always  be  of  the  same  material  as 
the  flow-pipes  for  sewage.  Upright  soil  and  waste 
pipes,  must,  likewise,  be  as  heavy  as  the  horizontal 
portion  of  the  main  house  sewer  system. 

Where  lead  pipe  is  used  for  waste  or  vent  pipes,  it 
should  be  heavy  drawn  lead  pipe.  Where  the  waste 
and  vent  pipes  at  fixtures  are  of  brass,  heavy  brass 
pipe,  and  not  light  tubing,  should  be  used,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  interior  diameters  of  such 
pipes  of  the  full  bore  required. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  brass 
ferrules  required  to  join  lead  and  cast  iron  pipes. 
Extra  heavy  brass  thimbles  should  be  used,  and  when 
they  are  of  cast  brass  they  must  be  carefully  inspected 
for  sand-holes  or  flaws. 

The  lead  used  for  caulking  cast  iron  pipe  joints 
should  be  pure  pig  lead  cast  m  bars,  and  no  old  lead 
piping,  liable  to  contain  solder  or  impurities  should 
be  taken  for  this  purpose. 


2OO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Soundness  of  materials  is  also  required  in  the  sup- 
ply pipe  system.  Lead  pipe  of  heavy  weight,  either 
"A,"  "AA,"or  "  AAA,"  according  to  the  pressure, 
should  be  used  for  supply  pipes,  or  else  wrought  iron 
pipes,  protected  against  corrosion  by  galvanizing, 
enameling,  asphalting  or  by  a  rustless  process.  An- 
nealed tinned  brass  pipes,  although  somewhat  more 
expensive,  constitute  an  excellent  material  for  the 
supply  pipes  of  a  house. 

In  connection  with  the  system  of  supply  pipes  it  is 
quite  important  to  use  only  valves  and  shut-offs  of  a 
superior  quality  of  steam  metal  and  of  the  best  makes, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  faucets  for  fixtures, 
whether  self-closing,  ground-key  or  compression  bibbs 
are  chosen.  Economy  in  this  respect  is  always 
dearly  bought. 

Where  a  superior  job  of  gas-piping  is  desired,  gal- 
vanized wrought  iron  pipes  should  be  used,  and 
under  all  circumstances,  even  with  plain  wrought 
iron  piping,  it  is  advisable  to  use  galvanized  malle- 
able fittings  as  being  less  liable  to  contain  sand-holes. 

Traps  for  fixtures  may  be  of  lead,  brass  or  iron,  but 
in  many  forms  of  water  closets  the  traps  are  moulded 
in  glazed  earthenware,  and  form  part  of  the  bowl. 
Drawn  lead  traps  are  superior  to  cast  lead  traps,  and 
where  the  latter  are  used  they  should  be  tested  for 
sand  or  pin-holes.  The  same  precaution  is  advisable 
in  the  case  of  cast  brass  traps,  in  particular  in  the  case 
of  those  brass  traps  which  have  an  interior  dividing 
partition.  When  it  is  necessary  to  use  iron  traps 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.  2OI 

under  water  closets  or  other  fixtures,  the  inside  of  the 
traps  should  be  white  enameled  to  insure  a  smooth 
surface  and  to  avoid  corrosion. 

The  principle  of  sound  material  applies  equally  to 
the  fixtures  used  in  house  drainage  work.  Porcelain 
or  a  good  quality  of  white  glazed  earthenware,  yel- 
low stoneware  and  strong  glazed  fireclay  are  the 
materials  most  suitable  for  plumbing  appliances  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view.  Annealed  glass,  if  obtain- 
able, would  be  still  more  preferable  for  many  pur- 
poses. The  manufacture  of  enameled  ironware  has 
now  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection,  and  fixtures 
of  this  material,  being  less  heavy  and  less  expensive 
than  all-porcelain  fixtures,  are  extensively  employed. 
Marble  and  slate,  soapstone  and  artificial  stoneware 
are  suitable,  as  are  also  white  metal,  German  sil- 
ver, tinned  and  planished  or  nickel-plated  copper. 
Wooden  fixtures  are  no  longer  used  in  good  work, 
because  wood,  if  alternately  wet  and  dry,  will  soon 
rot  and  because  its  pores  absorb  organic  matters  and 
become  foul  in  a  very  short  time. 
2.  Perfection  in  Workmanship. 

The  second  principle  requires  perfection  of  work- 
manship, whether  in  the  many  forms  of  joints  used  in 
plumbing  work,  or  in  the  manner  of  fastening  and 
supporting  pipes  or  in  the  proper  run,  alignment  and 
grade  given  to  the  pipes  for  water,  drainage  and  gas 
service.  Without  this  perfection  in  workmanship  the 
object  of  a  well-planned  system  of  plumbing  will  not 
be  attained  in  spite  of  the  use  of  sound  and  first  class 


2O2  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

material.  Hence  the  importance  of  making  all  pipe 
joints  absolutely  tight,  whether  the  joint  be  a  caulked, 
screwed  or  solder-wiped  joint,  and  whether  the  pipe 
conduit  be  employed  for  the  conveyance  of  water, 
gas  or  fouled  organic  wastes. 

Leaky  joints  in  water  pipes  may  cause  damage  to* 
decorated  ceilings,  wall  hangings  or  floor  coverings 
in  a  dwelling  house,  and  in  warehouses,  stores  and 
office  buildings,  may  injure  the  goods  stored  therein, 
or  destroy  important  documents.  Leaky  joints  in 
the  gas  pipe  system  may  destroy  plant  life,  or 
injure  book-bindings  and  picture  frames ;  they  may 
also  cause  ill-health  and  suffering,  and  sometimes 
death  by  asphyxiation,  at  other  times  dangerous  gas 
explosions  and  destructive  fires  may  result.  Leaky 
joints  in  the  soil,  drain,  waste  and  vent  pipe  system, 
aside  from  the  annoyance  of  foul  odors,  are  the  fre- 
quent cause,  by  the  introduction  of  disease  germs,  of 
sickness  and  death  in  many  a  household. 

The  tightness  of  all  pipe  systems  in  a  house  is, 
therefore,  a  matter  of  the  greatest  moment,  and 
should  be  ascertained  not  only  before  a  building  is 
completed  but  also  from  time  to  time  after  it  is  occu- 
pied, by  proper  tests,  to  which  reference  is  made  in 
another  chapter. 

All  joints  on  the  sewer  side  of  traps  require  par- 
ticular attention.  Thus  in  all  forms  of  water  closets 
or  other  fixtures  where  the  trap  is  molded  in  one 
piece  with  the  bowl  and  set  above  the  floor,  the  floor 
joint  should  be  very  carefully  made.  Care  should 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          203 

also  be  taken  to  set  all  fixture  traps  perfectly  level, 
and  to  prevent,  by  a  proper  fastening,  their  subse- 
quent bending-  or  tipping. 

All  iron  pipe  lines  should  be  properly  supported  to 
prevent  settling  or  sagging  of  the  pipes,  and  the  sup- 
ports should  be  amply  strong,  preferably  of  wrought 
iron  and  firmly  attached  by  screws  or  bolts  to  the 
walls,  floors  or  ceilings.  House  drains  should  be  sup- 
ported on  brick  or  concrete  piers  at  suitable  distances. 
Heavy  lead  pipes  are  particularly  liable  to  sag  and 
should  always  be  supported  on  continuous  wooden 
boards. 

All  pipes  of  the  water,  gas,  drainage  and  roof- 
water  system  should  be  arranged  as  direct  and 
straight  as  possible. 

All  branches  in  the  drainage  system  should  be 
Y-branches,  and  changes  in  direction  must  be  made 
with  curves  of  a  large  radius.  Sharp  curves  and  right 
angled  connections  are  quite  objectionable  because 
tending  to  cause  accumulations  and  ultimately  stop- 
pages. 

The  importance  of  employing  only  the  best  skilled 
labor  for  such  work  cannot  be  overestimated.  As 
regards  the  best  way  of  doing  new  plumbing  work, 
whether  by  day's  labor  on  a  fixed  percentage  basis, 
or  by  contract  work,  for  a  stipulated  sum,  much  may 
be  said  on  both  sides  of  the  question. 

If  an  owner  chooses  for  the  work  a  contractor  of 
good  standing  and  unblemished  reputation,  who  is 
personally  known  to  him,  and  if  this  contractor  has 


204  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

in  his  employ  a  reliable  foreman  and  competent 
mechanics,  a  good  job  may  be  secured  at  a  fair  and 
not  excessive  price  if  carried  out  by  day's  work. 

An  equally  good  job  may,  however,  be  obtained  in 
many  cases  if  the  work  is  given  out  by  contract,  pro- 
vided the  owner  has  beforehand  settled  all  questions 
of  fixtures  and  arrangement,  and  also  provided  the 
work  is  done  in  accordance  with  carefully  drawn 
plans  and  specifications,  under  the  superintendence 
of  some  qualified  disinterested  expert  of  reputation, 
and  provided,  finally,  a  few  judiciously  selected  and 
reliable  firms  of  equal  standing  are  invited  to  esti- 
mate on  the  work. 

Where  the  contractor  is  not  known  to  the  owner  or 
architect,  it  is  always  better  to  have  the  work  done 
by  contract  for  a  fixed  sum  agreed  upon. 

Where  bids  for  work  are  publicly  advertised,  it  is  gen- 
erally unsafe  to  give  the  contract  to  the  lowest  bidderc 
3.  Simplicity  in  Arrangement. 

A  third  principle  is  simplicity  in  arrangement,  and 
this  requirement  should  be  applied  not  only  to  the 
work  as  a  whole,  but  also  to  its  different  parts,  to  the 
soil  pipe  system,  the  supply  system,  the  trap  system 
and  the  .fixture  system.  This  requirement  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  and  should  be  born  in  mind  from 
the  conception  of  the  work  to  its  final  execution. 

It  means  that  plumbing  and  drainage  work  must 
be  carefully  planned  so  as  to  secure  as  much  compact- 
ness and  directness  as  possible.  It  signifies,  also,  that 
plumbing  fixtures  should  be  concentrated  and  located, 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          2O5 

as  far  as  practicable,  directly  in  vertical  groups,  in 
order  to  avoid  a  useless  multiplication  of  soil  pipe 
stacks,  and  the  increased  risk  incident  to  a  wide  dis- 
tribution of  plumbing-  fixtures. 

This  principle,  furthermore,  requires  that  the  num- 
ber of  fixtures  or  of  outlets  into  the  drainage  system 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum  of  necessary  fixtures,  and 
that  all  long  horizontal  lateral  branches  be  avoided, 
by  placing  the  needed  fixtures  as  close  as  possible  to 
the  main  line  of  soil  pipe. 

The  plumbing  work  of  a  house  should  not  be  scat- 
tered, but  should  be  confined  to  the  toilet  room,  the 
bathroom,  the  kitchen,  butler's  pantry,  scullery  and 
laundry.  Plumbing  fixtures  should  be  entirely 
abolished  in  living  rooms,  as  well  as  in  the  cellar 
of  a  house. 

I  am  not  at  all  in  sympathy  with  the  modern  ten- 
dency of  making  plumbing  work  elaborate,  costly 
and  in  every  way  complicated.  The  simpler  a  sys- 
tem can  be  laid  out  the  better  in  my  judgment  will  it 
be.  Thus,  it  is  objectionable  to  have  several  lines  of 
vertical  soil  pipes  where,  by  a  slight  change  in  the 
location  of  some  fixture,  a  single  line  would  answer 
the  purpose. 

I  should  likewise,  avoid,  any  complicated  system 
of  water  service  distribution,  necessitating  running 
supply  pipes  horizontally  across  floors  and  over  deco- 
rated ceilings.  The  proper  place  for  the  water  dis- 
tribution of  a  house  is  at  the  cellar  or,  better,  at  the 
basement,  ceiling.  The  branch  supply  pipes  in  bath- 


2O6  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

rooms  should  be  kept  in  sight  and  run  above  the  floor 
along-  the  walls.  I  should  aim  to  make  the  whole 
supply  system  as  simple  as  possible  and  should  avoid, 
in  the  hot  water  service,  the  usual  complicated  double 
boiler  system. 

In  the  trap  system  all  double  trapping  on  the  main 
drain  and  at  fixtures,  particularly  at  water  closets, 
and  all  manner  of  complicated  trapping  devices,  such 
as  mechanical  traps,  etc.,  are  objectionable.  A  good 
rule  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the  trapped  waste  from  a 
fixture  should  not  pass  through  another  trap  before 
reaching  the  soil  or  waste  pipe. 

Where  a  simpler  system  can  be  arranged  just  as 
safely.  I  should  not  favor  the  back-venting  of  traps, 
because  it  adds  all  manner  of  complication  to  the 
work,  because  it  renders  the  work  vastly  more  costly, 
and,  because  it  adds  new  dangers,  and  thus  makes 
the  plumbing  work  less  safe  than  expected.  I  shall 
refer  to  this  point  once  more  when  speaking  of 
trapping. 

The  back  air  or  double  pipe  system  is  sometimes 
made  still  more  complicated  by  adding  a  third  pipe 
system,  namely  the  local  vent  pipes,  carried  from  the 
house  side  of  the  traps  to  some  heated  flue.  While 
this  method  can,  undoubtedly,  be  made  to  work  quite 
efficiently,  it  seems  to  be  hardly  necessary  where 
proper  ventilation  of  the  rooms  containing  plumbing 
work  is  provided.  Simpler  methods  of  soil  and  vent 
systems  than  at  present  required  in  most  plumbing 
regulations  are  much  to  be  desired. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          2O/ 

Lastly,  the  utmost  simplicity  should  be  observed  in 
the  fitting  up  of  plumbing"  fixtures,  and  all  kinds  of 
complicated  apparatus  should  be  avoided  as  being 
more  expensive  in  first  cost  and  less  efficient,  and 
quite  costly  in  maintenance  and  repairs. 

4.  Accessibility. 

The  fourth  principle  of  modern  sanitary  drainage  is 
the  accessibility  of  all  parts  of  the  work. 

By  this  we  obtain  not  only  a  greater  feeling  of 
security,  and  acquire  greater  actual  safety,  but  we 
also  secure  better  workmanship,  facilitate  cleaning 
operations,  expose  any  possible  slight  leaks,  and  ren- 
der all  repairs  to  the  plumbing  and  drainage  work 
less  difficult,  less  troublesome  and  less  costly. 

Applying  the  principle  of  accessibility  to  the  drains 
of  a  house,  we  carry  them,  wherever  practicable,  in 
plain  sight  above  the  floor  and  along  the  cellar  walk 
Where  we  are  obliged  to  put  the  main  house  sewers 
under  a  concrete,  tiled  or  asphalt  floor,  we  provide 
frequent  cleaning  and  flushing  handholes  to  gain 
access  to  the  drain  in  case  of  stoppage,  and  we  keep 
all  such  handholes  accessible  by  means  of  brick  man- 
holes, with  cast  iron  frames  and  covers.  The  rest  of 
the  pipe  may  then  be  safely  buried  in  concrete,  in 
fact,  I  prefer  this  method  of  construction  to  the 
method  sometimes  required  of  putting  such  under- 
ground drains  in  trenches  with  brick  walls  and  flag- 
stone covering,  for  these  in  time  accumulate  dust,  dirt 
and  dampness,  besides  not  infrequently  forming  chan 
nels  for  rats  and  harboring  places  for  vermin. 


2O8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

This  principle  efficiently  carried  out  requires  all 
pipes,  whether  for  drainage,  water  or  gas,  to  be 
placed  in  plain  sight  and  kept  accessible  throughout. 
All  soil  and  waste  pipes  should  be  thus  arranged,  and, 
as  a  rule,  can  be  kept  exposed,  except  possibly  on  the 
parlor  floor,  and  here  they  should  be  covered  by  a 
hinged  faceboard  so  as  to  be  readily  got  at. 

The  same  rule  applied  to  water  supply  pipes  re- 
quires these  to  be  kept  outside  of  walls,  plastered  par- 
titions and  floors.  Water  pipes  in  cellars  should  not 
be  buried  under  the  concrete  floor,  and  the  proper 
place  for  distributing  pipes  for  hot  and  cold  water  for 
the  upper  floors  is  at  the  kitchen  and  laundry  ceiling, 
and  not  under  the  parquet  floor  of  dining  rooms,  as  is 
still  so  often  done.  All  rising  lines  should  be  carried 
exposed  in  closets  and  in  the  bathrooms. 

Even  in  regard  to  gas  pipes,  which  are  generally 
buried  out  of  sight,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  keep 
at  least  all  risers  and  main  lines  exposed,  while  dis- 
tributing pipes  laid  under  floors  should  be  kept  acces- 
sible by  screwing  the  floor  boards  which  cover  the 
pipes  down  with  brass  screws. 

Rainwater  pipes,  overflow  pipes,  refrigerator  wastes 
and  other  disconnected  wastes,  should  also  be  kept 
accessible,  and  means  provided  for  flushing  them  out 
at  regular  intervals,  and  all  these  pipes  should  have 
access  holes  for  removing  obstructions. 

What  is  true  of  the  pipes,  is  also  applicable  to  the 
valves  and  shut-offs  on  supply  lines  and  gas  services, 
so  that  in  case  of  the  bursting  of  a  water  pipe,  or  in 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          2OQ 

case  of  fire,  the  water  and  gas  may  be  readily  turned 
of,  either  from  the  whole  house,  or  on  the  different 
floors,  or  at  each  particular  fixture,  as  the  case  may 
be,  without  losing  much  valuable  time  in  searching 
for  hidden  stop  valves. 

All  traps  should  likewise  be  kept  accessible.  The 
trap  on  the  main  drain,  should,  if  under  the  floor,  be 
encased  in  a  brick  manhole  ;  rainwater,  area,  court 
and  yard  drain  traps  should  not  be  buried  out  of  sight 
in  the  ground,  but  placed  in  the  cellar  where  they  can 
be  got  at.  All  traps  under  fixtures  should  remain 
exposed,  and  access  given  to  them  by  clean-out  caps 
or  brass  trap  screws. 

The  main  house  drain  should  be  made  accessible 
by  placing  frequent  handholes,  closed  by  brass  trap 
screws,  at  the  foot  of  all  vertical  lines,  at  all  bends, 
at  junctions,  at  traps,  and  so  on. 

Last,  but  not  least,  all  plumbing  fixtures  should 
remain  open,  exposed  and  accessible.  Until  quite 
recently  the  custom  has  been  to  box  up  and  encase 
the  various  fixtures,  water  closets,  wash  basins,  bath 
tubs,  laundry  tubs  and  sinks,  with  much  useless  wood- 
work. Fortunately,  this  custom  has  slowly  but  surely 
given  way  to  the  new  method  of  "  open "  fixtures. 
This  principle  is  particularly  important  in  the  case  of 
water  closets  and  of  slop  sinks.  The  less  woodwork 
these  fixtures  are  fitted  up  with  the  better  they  are. 
Until  recently  it  required  strong  arguments  to  secure 
a  client's  approval  to  the  open  arrangement  of  water 
closet  seats,  but  happily  its  advantages  are  now  being 
more  universally  recognized  and  adopted. 


2IO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

With  the  desire  of  making"  exposed  plumbing1  as 
showy  and  handsome  as  possible,  it  has  become  the 
custom  to  specify  polished,  nickel  or  silver  plated 
brass  piping  and  traps  at  all  open  fixtures.  This  has 
recently  led,  owing  to  the  increased  labor  involved 
for  the  servants  of  the  household  in  keeping  the  work 
bright  and  polished,  to  a  certain  amount  of  prejudice, 
even  in  architects'  offices,  against  open  work.  This 
misunderstanding — for  as  such  it  must  be  regarded — 
is  a  very  unfortunate  one,  for  it  is  not  at  all  necessary, 
in  order  to  have  open  plumbing  work,  to  use  nickel 
or  silver  plated  brass  piping.  On  the  contrary,  work 
of  equal  quality  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  can 
be  secured  with  lead  or  galvanized  pipes,  which  may 
be  suitably  painted  with  enamel  paint,  or  covered 
with  silver  or  aluminum  bronze. 

In  the  servants'  quarters  of  a  house,  however,  under 
kitchen  and  pantry  sinks  and  laundry  tubs,  the  use  of 
lead  traps  and  waste  pipes  in  open  work  should,  in 
my  opinion,  be  discouraged,  and  lacquered  brass 
traps  and  pipes  should  be  given  the  preference,  as 
being  much  stronger  than  lead  work  in  resisting" 
blows  or  indentations  caused  by  the  careless  knock- 
ing about  of  pails,  cans,  etc.,  under  these  plumbing" 
fixtures. 

Not  only  should  all  plumbing  fixtures  be  arranged 
in  an  open  manner,  leaving  all  parts  accessible,  but 
preference  should  be  given  in  the  selection  of  fixtures 
to  those  without  hidden  and  inaccessible  waste  valves, 
overflow  pipes,  or  traps. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          211 

5.  Safe  Trapping. 

A  fifth  principle  consists  in  the  safe  trapping  of  all 
house  drains,  of  area,  court  and  yard  drains,  of  the 
subsoil  drains,  if  connected  with  the  sewer,  and  of  all 
plumbing-  fixtures,  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
sewer  or  soil  pipe  air  and  disease  germs  into  the  house. 
Rain  water  pipes  should,  likewise,  be  trapped  if  they 
open  near  dormer  windows  or  near  vent  flues  or  light 
and  air  shafts  ;  in  other  positions  they  may  be  left 
untrapped,  if  made  of  heavy  cast  iron  or  wrought 
iron  with  tight  joints. 

The  trap  on  the  main  drain  serves  to  shut  off  the 
house  from  the  sewer  air  in  the  common  street  sewer, 
and  thus  maintains  a  perfect  isolation  of  each  dwell- 
ing. All  sanitarians  agree  that  such  a  trap  is  neces- 
sary where  houses  discharge  into  cesspools  or  sewage 
tanks,  and  also  where  they  are  connected  with  old, 
ill-constructed  sewers  without  ventilation  and  proper 
flushing  appliances.  It  is  also  generally  conceded  to 
be  permissible  to  omit  the  trap  where  the  house  con- 
nects with  a  well-constructed,  amply  ventilated  sewer 
system,  always  provided  the  soil  pipe  system  in  the 
house  is  absolutely  air  tight  and  the  fixtures  safely 
trapped. 

But,  since  dangers  to  health  may  arise  just  as  much, 
nay,  even  more  so,  from  bad  gases  and  germs  evolved 
from  the  foul  discharge  pipes  inside  of  a  house,  than 
from  the  outside  sewers,  it  is  necessary  to  trap  all 
plumbing  fixtures  of  a  house  separately.  A  popular 
fallacy  is  that  all  so-called  " sewer  gas"  comes  from 


212  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

the  public  sewers.  In  many  cases,  on  the  contrary, 
house  pipes  generate  more  sewer  air  than  is  found  in 
a  well  flushed  and  well  ventilated  street  sewer. 

Therefore,  each  fixture  should  have  its  own  trap, 
set  as  close  to  the  fixture  as  practicable.  This  trap 
should  be  so  constructed  or  arranged  as  to  be  abso- 
lutely safe  against  self-siphonage,  against  siphonage 
produced  by  the  flow  from  adjacent  fixtures,  or  fix- 
tures on  upper  floors,  against  back  pressure,  and 
against  loss  of  water  seal  by  capillary  attraction  or 
by  evaporation. 

Space  does  not  permit  me  to  discuss  separately  the 
numerous  forms  of  water  seal  and  mechanical  traps 
which  have  from  time  to  time  been  invented. 

In  my  judgment,  mechanical  traps  should  not  be 
used  except  where  the  waste  water  is  comparatively 
clean,  as  at  tank  overflows,  refrigerator  wastes  and 
the  like.  For  fixtures  discharging  befouled  waste 
water,  the  simple  water  seal  traps  only  should  be  used. 

To  render  the  trapping  of  fixtures  safe  against  the 
above-named  dangers,  two  methods  may  be  adopted, 
one  being  the  method  now  largely  called  for  in  Board 
of  Health  regulations  of  the  venting  or  "  back-airing  " 
of  traps  ;  the  other  one  involving  the  use  of  non- 
siphoning  traps  or  of  anti-siphon  trap  attachments,  or 
security  shut-offs.  The  former  method  is  costly,  com- 
plicated, cumbersome,  fraught  with  new  dangers  and 
not  altogether  reliable,  whereas  the  latter  is  simple, 
efficient  and  safe,  if  judiciously  arranged.  My  per- 
sonal preference,  in  conformity  with  the  third  funda- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          213 

mental  principle  of  simplicity  of  arrangement,  has 
always  been  for  the  second  method.  With  few  ex- 
ceptions, Board  of  Health  and  Building  Department 
rules  still  require  the  method  of  back-air  pipes.  It 
seems  quite  desirable  that  all  such  rules  should  be  re- 
vised so  as  to  make  it  at  least  optionary  with  the  owner 
or  architect  which  of  the  two  systems  he  will  adopt. 
(See  chapter  on  "Simplified  Plumbing  Methods.") 

Double  trapping  of  house  drains  is  likewise  objec- 
tionable and  unnecessary,  and  so  is  the  double  trap- 
ping of  fixtures,  particularly  of  water  closets.  Double 
trapping  often  leads  in  the  case  of  fixtures  having 
traps  with  back-air  pipes  to  the  establishment  of 
dangerous  "bye-passes." 

As  regards  the  supply  system,  as  well  as  the  gas 
pipe  system,  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  state  that  all 
manner  of  traps  in  such  piping  must  be  carefully 
avoided. 

The  disconnected  pipe  system,  such  as  refrigerator 
wastes,  boiler  blow-offs,  floor  drains,  fountain  wastes, 
safe  wastes,  tell-tales,  overflows,  and  the  courtyard 
and  area  drains,  if  disconnected  as  is  sometimes  done, 
need  not  ordinarily  be  provided  with  traps,  because 
they  are  not  connected  directly  with  any  soil,  waste 
or  drain  pipe.  They  should  discharge  over  a  properly 
trapped  water-supplied  sink  placed  in  the  lowest  part 
of  the  house,  and  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  prevent 
their  acting  as  conductors  of  cellar  air  by  placing  a 
hinged  brass  flap  valve  over  the  outlets  at  the  sink. 
Overflows  and  blow-offs  from  tanks  on  roofs  of  build- 


214  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ings  may  safely  discharge   into  a  roof  gutter,  or  on 
the  roof,  or  else  into  a  leader  pipe. 
6.  Thorough  Ventilation. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  a  very  im- 
portant principle  in  house  drainage,  viz  :  the  thorough 
ventilation  of  the  drainage  system.  In  order  to  ren- 
der the  soil,  drain  and  waste  pipe  system  of  a  build- 
ing safe,  it  is  necessary  that  the  air  contained  in  the 
pipes  be  kept  constantly  in  motion  and  continually 
changed.  This  is  effected  by  extending  all  soil,  waste 
and  vent  pipe  lines  the  full  size  up  to  and  through 
the  roof.  It  is  even  better  to  increase  all  pipes  from 
under  the  roof  upward,  and  this  enlargement  is  very 
necessary  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  waste  and  vent 
pipes,  because  roof  pipes  smaller  than  four  inches 
become  sometimes  closed  in  winter  by  hoar  frost. 

All  pipes  above  the  roof  should  be  kept  open,  free 
and  unobstructed.  Return  bends,  ventilating  caps 
and  all  forms  of  patent  ventilators  practically  do 
more  harm  than  good. 

But,  in  order  to  have  a  circulation  of  air  in  the  soil 
pipe  system,  these  pipes  ought  to  be  open  not  only 
at  the  top,  but  should  have,  in  addition,  a  foot  vent 
at  the  lowest  point.  When  the  trap  on  the  house 
drain  is  omitted,  this  foot  vent  is  not  needed,  as  air 
is  then  admitted  from  the  street  sewers.  Where  the 
trap  is  used,  a  fresh  air  inlet  pipe  connected  with  the 
drain  at  the  house  side  of  the  main  trap  should  be 
provided.  The  fresh  air  pipe  should  not  terminate  in 
close  proximity  to  windows,  or  near  the  inlet  of  the 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.  215 

cold  air  box  of  a  heating-  apparatus,  but  it  is  equally 
important  to  avoid  placing  it  where  it  may  become 
obstructed  and  rendered  entirely  useless  by  snow,  ice 
or  dirt.  Fresh  air  inlet  gratings  set  flush  in  the  side- 
walk, as  still  required  by  the  New^  York  City  plumb- 
ing regulations,  will  be  found  in  a  majority  of  cases 
obstructed  and  ineffective. 

It  should  be  a  rule  to  avoid  all  dead  ends  in  the 
pipe  system.  Hence,  where  a  fixture  cannot  practi- 
cally be  located  within  four  or  five  feet  from  the  main 
ventilated  soil  pipe,  the  lateral  waste  should,  under 
all  circumstances,  be  continued  upwards  to  the  roof 
independently,  and  this  rule  should  be  followed 
whether  the  fixture  is  trapped  by  a  common  S  trap, 
or  by  a  non^siphoning  trap,  or  by  a  mechanical  trap. 
Where  the  traps  of  fixtures  are  located  within  a  few 
feet  from  a  well  ventilated  upright  line,  it  may  be 
safely  assumed  that  a  sufficient  diffusion  of  air  takes 
place  in  the  short  lateral  pipe,  particularly  if  the  fix- 
tures are  in  constant  daily  use.  It  is,  of  course,  neces- 
sary in  this  case  that  the  trap  be  a  non-siphoning  trap. 

The  ventilation  of  plumbing  fixtures  is  suitably 
accomplished  where  open  or  exposed  work  is  used,  by 
a  frequent  and  thorough  change  of  the  air  of  the 
apartment,  and  hence  it  is  important  to  place  fixtures 
in  well  lighted  rooms  having  outside  windows.  Fix- 
tures such  as  water  closets  or  housemaids'  slop  sinks 
should  never  be  located  in  dark,  interior  closets  with- 
out ventilation,  nor  should  servants'  water  closets  be 
located  in  dark,  out-of-the-way  corners  of  a  cellar. 


2l6  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Ventilation  should  also  be  provided  for  the  tan* 
for  drinking  water,  as  well  as  for  refrigerator  waste 
pipes,  particularly  in  the  case  of  apartment  houses. 
The  place  where  the  gas  meter  is  set  should  likewise 
be  well  ventilated. 
7.  Efficient  Flushing. 

Another  cardinal  principle  is  the  efficient  flushing 
of  the  whole  plumbing  system.  It  should  apply  not 
only  to  the  main  house  drain,  but  likewise  to  the  soil 
pipes,  waste  pipes,  the  lateral  branches,  the  traps  and 
the  fixtures. 

The  regular  flushing  of  house  drains  is  accom- 
plished, first,  by  laying  them  with  a  grade  which  will 
insure  a  cleansing  velocity  of  the  flow,  and,  second, 
by  restricting  them  in  size  so  as  to  concentrate  the 
sewage  flow.  Where  this  object  can  be  attained  the 
drains  may  be  called  self-cleansing. 

Where  the  fall  is  necessarily  light,  artificial  flushing 
appliances,  such  as  automatic  siphon  flush  tanks, 
should  be  constructed  at  the  head  of  the  drain.  This, 
matter  has,  in  my  judgment,  received  far  too  little 
attention  in  the  past.  It  has  been  customary  to  rely 
too  implicitly  upon  the  scouring  power  derived  from 
the  connection  of  rain  water  pipes  with  the  sewage 
drains.  While  the  beneficial  effect  of  a  good  rain 
storm  in  the  flushing  of  house  drains  cannot  be  denied, 
it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  there  are  often  pro- 
tracted periods  of  dry  weather,  particularly  in  the 
summer  season,  when  house  drains  are  more  than  at 
other  times  in  need  of  a  regular  periodical  flush. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          21  7 

With  vertical  soil  and  waste  pipes  restricted  in  size 
it  is  believed  that  the  daily  flow  from  the  plumbing 
fixtures  will  keep  these  upright  pipes  scoured  suffi- 
ciently for  all  practical  purposes. 

The  disconnected  refrigerator  waste  pipes  need  a 
frequent  application  of  a  thorough  flush,  which  can  in 
most  cases  be  readily  accomplished  by  branching  the 
blow-off  from  the  kitchen  or  laundry  boiler  into  the 
refrigerator  waste,  and  blowing  off  the  boiler  at  reg- 
ular intervals.  Where  this  cannot  be  done,  it  will  be 
found  useful  to  put  over  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe  a 
small  automatic  flush  tank. 

Safe  waste  and  drip  pipes  ordinarily  receive  no 
flushing  whatever,  and  hence  I  am  inclined  to  favor 
their  entire  omission,  except,  perhaps,  where  they 
serve  to  protect  expensively  decorated  ceilings.  Safe 
w^aste  or  drip  pipes  from  urinal  platforms  are  particu- 
larly objectionable,  and  are  often  the  cause  of  bad 
odors  in  public  toilet  rooms.  Where  floors  in  toilet 
rooms  of  office  buildings  or  in  hospitals,  railroad  sta- 
tions, etc.,  are  tiled  or  otherwise  made  water-tight, 
and  where  an  abundance  of  water  for  floor  washing 
is  available,  large  size  floor  drains  may  with  advan- 
tage be  employed,  and  should  discharge  openly  over 
trapped  sinks  on  the  lowest  floor,  or  else  into  separate 
lines  not  connected  with  a  foul-water  sewer. 

The  principle  of  constant  flushing  should  also  be 
applied  to  the  traps  under  the  fixtures,  and  it  is  suit- 
ably accomplished,  first,  by  restricting  the  diameter 
of  the  traps  so  as  to  insure  a  scour  through  the  traps, 


2l8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  second,  by  the  use  throughout  of  quick  emptying 
fixtures,  having  large  outlets. 

In  this  respect  a  great  improvement  has  been 
noticeable  during  the  past  years.  The  old-fashioned 
lavatories  with  small  waste  outlets,  obstructed  by 
strainers,  have  been  replaced  by  basins  with  large  out- 
lets, and  the  same  is  true  of  bathtubs  and  plug  sinks. 
In  the  case  of  kitchen  sinks  with  open  strainers,  the 
flow  from  which  is  generally  a  mere  dribbling  stream, 
an  improvement  in  the  discharge  may  be  effected  by 
the  use  of  a  flush  pot  or  similar  sink  attachment, 
which  collects  the  dribbling  stream  until  it  becomes 
filled,  and  then  discharges  rapidly  the  whole  contents 
either  by  an  automatic  device,  or  by  the  lifting  of  a 
plug.  Such  a  device  is  also  useful  as  a  grease  trap, 
and  much  superior  to  the  forms  of  grease  trap  com- 
monly used  under  sinks,  which  accumulate  putrefy- 
ing grease,  and  are  seldom,  if  ever,  cleaned  by  kitchen 
servants. 

As  regards  plumbing  fixtures  those  receiving  the 
alvine  discharges  from  persons,  viz  :  water  closets, 
urinals  and  slop  sinks,  should  always  be  efficiently 
flushed  from  special  flushing  cisterns,  discharged 
either  by  hand  or  automatically,  and  the  bowls  should 
be  provided  with  proper  flushing  rims. 

Water  closets,  as  well  as  other  fixtures  with  mov- 
able mechanism  in  the  bowl,  or  with  mechanical 
obstructions  of  any  kind,  or  those  having  unneces- 
sarily large  fouling  surfaces,  should  be  avoided  as 
being  liable  to  remain  imperfectly  flushed. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          2 19 

8.  Durability,  Efficiency  and  Convenience. 

A  further  principle  is  that  of  durability,  efficiency 
and  convenience  of  the  plumbing-  work.  All  mate- 
rials, pipes,  traps,  fixtures  and  appurtenances,  should 
be  the  best  obtainable  consistent  with  due  economy, 
and  all  parts  of  the  work  should  be  so  put  together 
as  to  require  a  minimum  of  repairs.  In  this  matter 
of  subsequent  repairs,  in  particular,  the  modern  ex- 
posed and  accessible  plumbing  work  differs  strongly 
from  work  as  usually  done  in  the  past. 

In  order  to  be  efficient,  a  house  drainage  system 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  effect  a  complete,  rapid, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  automatic  removal  of  all  liquid 
and  semi-liquid  wastes.  In  the  traps  and  pipes  every- 
where all  stagnation  of  water  and  air  should  be 
avoided. 

Furthermore,  to  be  thoroughly  efficient,  soil  and 
drain  pipes,  waste  pipes  and  traps  should  be  restricted 
in  diameter,  and  should  be  run  with  perfect  align- 
ment, avoiding-  all  unnecessary  offsets,  sharp  bends 
and  right  angled  connections. 

The  water  supply  system,  on  the  contrary,  to  be 
efficient,  must  be  constructed  with  pipes  of  large  bore 
to  give  a  good  flow  of  water  at  every  fixture  in  the 
house.  In  like  manner  all  shut-off  valves  should  be  of 
the  full  bore,  so  as  not  to  restrict  the  water-way,  gate 
valves  should  be  used  in  preference  to  globe  valves 
(except  possibly  where  the  water  is  very  gritty), 
and  round-way  stop  cocks  in  preference  to  the  ordi- 
nary kind  which  have  a  reduced  cross  sectional  area. 


22O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  same  principles  apply  to  the  pipes  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  illuminating-  gas.  Sound  gas  pipes,  prop- 
erly welded,  and  put  together  with  galvanized  fit- 
tings, should  be  employed,  and  in  order  to  supply  to 
the  gas  burners  an  ample  volume  of  gas  for  efficient 
illumination,  the  pipes  should  be  of  large  bore. 

Plumbing  fixtures,  in  order  to  be  efficient  and  con- 
venient, must  be  quick  emptying,  must  have  no  large 
fouling-  surfaces,  and  should  be  without  mechanical 
obstructions  of  any  kind.  There  are  numerous  kinds 
of  waste  valves  for  sinks,  basins  and  bathtubs,  and  it 
is  true  of  these  appliances,  as  well  as  of  Water  closets, 
that  the  simpler  they  are  constructed  the  more  efficient 
they  will  prove  in  actual  use. 

Of  water  closets  there  are  a  number  of  different 
types.  It  would  lead  me  too  far  to  consider,  in  de- 
tail, the  requirements  of  a  good  water  closet  appa- 
ratus. Suffice  it  to  say  that  all  mechanical  types, 
i.  e.,  those  having  more  or  less  complicated  mechani- 
cal apparatus  to  effect  a  discharge,  stand  self-con- 
demned. To  these  belong  the  old-fashioned  pan  or 
Bartholomew  closet,  the  valve  closet  or  Bramah 
closet,  and  the  plung-er  closet  or  Jennings  type  of 
closet.  Equally  bad,  because  liable  to  become 
befouled,  are  long  hoppers  with  round  bowl  and  whirl 
flush  (so-called  Philadelphia  hoppers). 

The  only  good  types  are  flushing  rim  straight  back 
long  hoppers,  and  flushing-  rim  short  hoppers  ;  the 
wash-out  closets  and  the  wash-down  closets  ;  the 
siphon-jet  and  the  siphon  closets.  The  wash-out 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          221 

closets,  both  of  the  front  and  back  outlet  type,  have 
in  practical  use  developed  a  number  of  defects,  such 
as  the  fouling  of  the  outlet  shaft,  which  is  not  covered 
by  water,  as  is  the  case  with  siphon,  siphon-jet  or 
wash-down  closets,  the  insufficient  depth  of  water 
standing-  in  the  bowls  and  the  incomplete  flushing  of 
the  traps.  I  venture  to  predict  that  they  will  rapidly 
come  out  of  use.  My  decided  preference  is  now  and 
has  long  been  for  wash-down,  siphon-jet  and  siphon 
closets. 
9.  Noiselessness  in  Operation. 

The  principle  of  noiselessness  in  operation  requires 
in  the  supply  system  that  all  service  pipes  be  free 
from  water-hammer,  that  ball-cocks  in  cisterns  fill  the 
same  without  hissing  or  roaring  noise,  that  kitchen 
boilers  do  not  rumble  when  overheated,  and  that  the 
faucets  deliver  water  without  sputtering,  noise  or 
water-hammer. 

In  the  soil  and  waste  pipe  system  this  principle 
requires  that  the  sound  of  flowing  water  be  not  trans- 
mitted to  the  occupants  of  rooms.  This  easy  trans- 
mission of  sound  forms,  perhaps,  the  only  objection 
to  the  free  exposure  of  soil  and  waste  pipes,  and  it 
must  be  conceded  that  it  is  not  easy  to  overcome  the 
drawbacks  incident  to  such  arrangement. 

The  discharge  of  modern  flushing  rim  water  closets 
is  generally  accompanied  with  more  or  less  disagree- 
able noise  and  gurgling  sound,  due  to  the  falling 
water  or  to  the  escape  of  air  in  the  flush  pipes,  or  the 
siphon  discharge  of  the  closet,  or  to  imperfect  arrange- 


222  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ment  of  the  flushing  cistern.  There  are,  however, 
ways  in  which  this  defect  can  be  obviated,  and  some 
of  the  best  types  of  approved  sanitary  closets  and 
flushing  cisterns  are  made  comparatively  noiseless 
in  action. 

All  plug,  waste  valve  or  stand  pipe  fixtures  like 
washtubs,  bathtubs,  and  wash  basins,  with  large  out- 
lets, cause  more  or  less  noise  in  emptying,  due  to  the 
sucking  of  air  into  the  waste  pipe,  and  this  is  another 
minor  fault  inherent  to  some  of  the  best  modern 
plumbing  appliances  which  it  has  not  been  possible 
to  overcome  readily  in  all  cases. 

10.  Prevention  of  Water  Waste  and  Protection  Against 
Freezing. 

The  importance  of  the  principle  that  there  should 
be  in  a  good  system  of  plumbing,  no  useless  waste  of 
water,  should  not  be  under-estimated.  In  the  supply 
system,  at  faucets,  valves  and  cisterns,  as  well  as  at 
fixtures,  this  requirement  should  be  observed. 

Much  waste  of  water  is  incurred  where  drinking 
water  is  drawn  at  faucets  in  summer  time,  by  letting 
the  water  which  has  lain  in  the  pipe  system  flow  off 
unused.  For  this  reason,  it  is  well  to  keep  hot  and 
cold  water  pipes  suitably  far  apart,  particularly  where 
such  pipes  are  carried  in  a  boxed-up  casing.  Again, 
when  it  is  desired  to  draw  hot  water,  much  water  is 
uselessly  wasted  by  letting  the  hot  water  faucets  run, 
in  systems  where  no  hot  water  circulation  pipe  is  pro- 
vided. It  is,  therefore,  true  economy  wherever  a  hot 
water  supply  is  provided,  to  'run  from  the  highest 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          223 

fixtures  on  each  line  a  circulation  pipe  back  into  the 
hot  water  boiler,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  continual  flow 
and  circulation.  The  circulation  pipe  must,  of  course, 
be  carefully  graded,  and  if  properly  arranged  will 
enable  a  person  to  draw,  at  once,  hot  water  at  any 
fixture  in  the  house. 

Water  waste  also  occurs  in  winter  time  where  the 
water  is  kept  running  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
pipes.  But  in  a  well  arranged  system  due  care  is 
taken  to  locate  all  supply  pipes  in  positions  where 
they  cannot  freeze,  thus  pipes  are  never  run  along 
outside  walls,  and  where  they  are  of  necessity  exposed 
to  freezing,  the  pipes  are  carefully  protected  with 
some  approved  non-conducting  covering. 

ii.  Absence  of  Complicated  Mechanism. 

A  leading  requirement  in  modern  plumbing  and 
drainage  work  is  the  absence  of  all  manner  of  compli- 
cated mechanism,  liable  to  derangement  and  to  foul- 
ing or  giving  rise  to  obstructions.  Thus  a  good  water- 
seal  trap  is  considered  preferable  to  the  numerous 
mechanical  trap-seals,  whether  flap  valves,  floating- 
balls,  gravity  sealing  appliances,  etc.  For  the  same 
reason  the  hinged  pan  in  the  pan  closet,  the  flap  valve 
of  the  valve-seal  closet,  the  plunger  of  the  plunger 
type  of  closet,  are  recognized  as  objectionable  and 
detrimental.  In  automatic  flushing  appliances  prefer- 
ence is  rightly  given  to  siphons  without  movable  parts. 

Finally,  with  wash  basins,  bathtubs  and  pantry 
sinks,  the  form  of  waste  plug  and  overflow  known  as 
the  "standing  overflow  "  is  generally  preferred,  from 


224  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

a  sanitary  point  of  view,  to  fixtures  with  more  com- 
plicated mechanism,  and  it  can  safely  be  asserted  that 
in  practical  use  such  stand  pipe  overflows  are  quite 
as  convenient  and  certainly  more  cleanly  than  other 
more  complicated  arrangements. 

12.  Cleanliness  and  Purity. 

This  last  requirement  applies  in  particular  to  the 
fixture  system  and  the  method  of  trapping  the  waste 
pipes.  It  involves  the  entire  exclusion  of  all  manner 
of  miniature  cesspools,  of  containers  or  enlarged 
chambers  liable  to  retain  and  accumulate  foul  matter. 

The  old-fashioned  pot  trap  as  used  under  wash 
basins,  bathtubs  and  sinks,  and  the  still  worse  D  trap 
as  used  under  water  closets,  are  illustrations  of  such 
faulty  methods,  defeating  every  endeavor  to  obtain 
cleanliness  and  purity.  Pan  closets,  valve  and 
plunger  closets,  and  all  kinds  of  unsanitary  waste 
valves  and  concealed  overflows,  which  never  receive 
a  flushing  and  cannot  be  properly  cleaned,  also  belong 
to  this  class  of  defects,  to  which  we  might  add  the 
befouled  safe  drip  pipes  under  fixtures. 

The  principles  of  cleanliness,  as  applied  to  the  pipe 
system,  signifies  that  after  construction  all  pipes  be 
suitably  cleaned  and  finished  off.  The  drain  pipes 
should  be  neatly  painted  or  varnished,  all  supply  pipes 
should  be  left  without  tool  marks,  and  covered  with 
bronze,  all  holes  in  walls,  partitions,  ceilings  and  floors 
should  be  properly  closed  by  the  plasterer  and  the 
carpenter.  This  is  quite  important  in  order  to  prevent 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DRAINAGE    AND    PLUMBING.          225 

any  upward  currents  of  air,  and  the  passage  of  foul 
odors  along  soil  or  waste  pipes  from  floor  to  floor. 

Much  depends,  finally,  upon  the  proper  mainten- 
ance and  care  of  plumbing  apparatus  in  a  household 
after  it  is  put  in  use,  but  it  must  suffice  to  merely 
make  mention  of  the  subject  here,  as  the  maintenance 
of  sanitary  appliances  has  been  already  discussed  in 
a  previous  chapter. 


VII. 

IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  HOUSE 
DRAINAGE* 


My  endeavor  will  be  to  explain  some  important 
improvements  which  have  been  brought  about  in  the 
past  ten  years  in  the  art  of  draining  houses. 

To  begin  with,  one  quite  noticeable  improvement 
relates  to  drainage  plans.  Until  a  comparatively  re- 
cent period  of  time,  it  was  an  exception  to  find  elab- 
orate plans  and  sections  of  the  plumbing  and  drainage 
system  of  buildings.  The  location  of  the  plumbing 


*  The  matter  contained  in  this  chapter  was  prepared  originally  for  an  address 
delivered  by  the  author  at  a  meeting  of  the  New  York  Architectural  League.  The 
address  contained  the  following  introductory  sentences: 

"  Your  committee  has  honored  me  with  an  invitation  to  prepare  a  paper  for  this 
meeting,  and  has  left  me  entirely  free  to  select  some  topic  from  the  wide  and  con- 
stantly growing  field  of  sanitary  engineering.  The  sanitation  of  houses,  school 
hygiene,  hospital  construction,  rain-baths,  domestic  gas  lighting,  the  sanitary  fea- 
tures of  the  laying  out  of  cities,  water  supply,  fire  prevention  and  fire  extinction, 
the  safety  in  theatres  and  halls  of  amusement — these  were  some  of  the  numerous 
subjects  which  occurred  to  me  as  being  of  interest  to  the  members  of  the  Archi- 
tectural League. 

After  thinking  the  matter  over  for  some  time,  I  concluded  that  it  would  be  bet- 
ter to  select  a  subject  in  which  I  have  been  most  actively  engaged  in  the  past 
years.  Accordingly,  I  decided  to  speak  to  you  on  'Improved  Methods  of  House 
Drainage,'  although  I  was  well  aware  of  the  fact  that  I  could  not  attempt  to  treat 
the  matter  from  any  novel  point  of  view.  For  while  the  subject  is  of  paramount 
importance,  and  one  in  which  every  architect  takes  an  interest,  it  has  been  quite 
frequently  discussed,  and  there  are  numerous  books,  pamphlets,  essays  and  lectures 
which  go  into  the  matter  very  fully. 

I  can,  therefore,  assure  you  that  it  is  with  the  utmost  diffidence  that  I  come 
before  you  to-night  to  give  a  brief  address  on  what  many  of  you  will  doubtless 
consider  a  dry  and  uninteresting  subject." 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          22J 

fixtures  was,  to  be  sure,  indicated  on  the  floor  plans 
of  the  building-.  Beyond  this,  very  little  information 
was  given.  It  was  not  usual  to  mark  the  number 
and  sizes  of  soil  pipe  stacks,  neither  was  the  run  and 
course  of  the  drains  indicated  on  the  plans  I  believe 
I  am  not  mistaken  in  stating  that  in  architects'  offices, 
the  practice  of  making1  a  special  drainage  plan  began 
with  the  enactment  of  the  plumbing  laws.  At  least, 
I  remember  distinctly  that,  when  as  chief  engineer  of 
a  house  drainage  company,  it  was  my  privilege,  about 
ten  years  ago,  to  estimate  in  some  of  the  prominent 
architectural  offices  in  this  and  in  other  cities,  I  was 
given  plans  to  estimate  on  where  the  drains  and  soil 
pipes  were  neither  shown,  nor  enumerated  or  de- 
scribed in  the  specifications.  All  this  has  undergone 
a  great  change  in  the  past  few  years. 

Owners  of  buildings  are  much  benefited  by  the 
plumbing  laws  which  require  plumbing  plans  to  be 
filed  in  the  City  Health  or  Building  Departments. 
Even  where  in  the  actual  construction  of  the  work, 
the  drainage  plan  is  more  or  less  modified,  there  is 
kept  on  record  a  usually  tolerably  accurate  plan, 
showing  the  position  of  pipes,  in  case  of  future  refer- 
ence. In  important  cases,  a  revised  drainage  plan  is 
subsequently  made,  showing  the  work  as  actually  put 
in.  The  contractors  are  benefited  by  it,  because  they 
know  better  on  what  work  and  what  quantities  to 
base  their  estimates.  Their  workmen  on  the  build- 
ing are,  likewise,  benefited,  because  they  can  find,  by 
referring  to  the  plans,  where  the  pipes  are  intended 


228  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

to  be  run.  The  architects  and  the  building  superin- 
tendents are  benefited,  because  they  do  not  have  to 
answer  so  many  questions  to  the  foreman  in  charge 
of  the  plumbing  and  drainage,  and  because  their  time 
is  not  so  much  taken  up  at  the  buildings  in  course  of 
construction  with  the  laying  out  of  the  sometimes 
complicated  work.  The  many  advantages,  resulting 
from  well-considered  drainage  plans,  become  particu- 
larly apparent  in  the  case  of  large  and  important 
structures,  such  as  hotels,  hospitals  and  modern  office 
buildings. 

Another  improvement  relates  to  plumbing  and 
drainage  specifications.  While  formerly  plumbing 
specifications  were  somewhat  indefinite  and  too  gen- 
eral in  character,  with  the  inevitable  result  that  esti- 
mates for  the  work  ran  widely  apart,  it  is  now  uni- 
versally recognized  that  plumbing  is  a  question  of 
vital  importance  in  building  construction,  and  much 
more  care  is  exhibited  in  the  preparation  of  the  speci- 
fication. Other  things  being  equal,  it  is  self-evident 
that  the  more  thoroughly  detailed  and  accurate  the 
specifications  are — which  does  not  necessarily  mean 
elaborate — the  closer  will  the  bids  for  the  work  run, 
and  the  more  will  the  finished  work  conform  to  the 
expectations  of  the  architect  or  his  client.  In  this 
connection,  I  ought  to  state  that  the  too  general 
use  of  the  printed  blank  plumbing  specifications  of 
the  Building  Department  for  contract  work,  is  not  in 
my  judgment,  to  be  approved.  Such  blank  forms 
may  be  exceedingly  convenient  and  labor-saving  for 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.         22Q 

the  inspectors  of  the  Department,  but  for  all,  except 
the  smallest  houses  or  tenement  buildings  or  simple 
warehouses,  they  are  not  sufficiently  detailed.  A  con- 
tract for  a  large  job  should  be  based  on  a  separate 
type  written  or  printed  specification.  Too  much  care 
cannot  be  bestowed  upon  the  specification.  It  is  my 
experience,  and  doubtless  others  will  confirm  it, 
that  the  number  of  extras  in  the  final  plumbing  bills  is 
inversely  in  proportion  to  the  completeness  of  the 
specification.  I  refer  here,  of  course,  only  to  the 
extras  w^hich  the  architect  finds  himself  compelled  to 
order,  owing  to  omissions  in  the  original  specifica- 
tions, and  I  do  not  include  those  sometimes  quite 
numerous  extras,  which  owners  or  building  commit- 
tees require. 

Now  let  me  turn  to  the  question  of  materials. 
Here,  too,  we  cannot  fail  to  find  numerous  and  im- 
portant improvements.  Formerly  the  house  drain 
inside  the  building  consisted  of  earthenware  pipes. 
The  soil  pipes  were  run  of  lead  pipe,  with  hand-made 
seams.  In  a  former  chapter  I  have  stated  the 
objections  to  such  materials.  Happily,  they  have 
gone  out  of  use.  The  first  improvement  consisted  in 
using  iron  pipes  for  drains  and  soil  pipes.  For  many 
years  it  was  customary  to  use  the  so-called  light  or 
standard  plumber's  soil  pipe.  When  the  testing  of 
drains  by  the  water  test  began,  the  objections  to  these 
pipes  at  once  became  apparent,  it  being  a  most  diffi- 
cult matter  to  caulk  joints  in  light  pipes  so  as  to  be 
permanently  air  and  water  tight.  Hence,  it  came 


230  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

about  that,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  better  class  of 
buildings,  extra  heavy  cast  iron  pipes  were  specified. 
From  this  time  dates  the  curious  practice,  which  I 
have  often  met,  of  specifying-  heavy  pipe  for  the  main 
drain  and  light  pipe  for  the  vertical  soil  and  waste 
pipe  lines.  Still  later,  when  the  practice  of  "  back- 
airing  "  traps  began,  heavy  pipes  were  specified  for 
both  the  drain  and  the  soil  pipe  system,  whereas  light 
pipes  were  considered  sufficiently  good  for  vertical 
lines  of  vent  pipes.  A  chain  is  not  stronger  than  its 
weakest  link,  and  authorities  are  now  all  in  accord 
that  it  was  a  mistake  to  use  two  grades  of  pipes  for  the 
soil,  drain  and  vent  pipe  system  of  a  building.  As  is 
well  known,  the  use  of  extra  heavy  pipes  is  now  in 
New  York  City  compulsory  in  all  classes  of  buildings, 
from  the  cheapest  tenement  house  to  the  finest  private 
mansion.  It  is,  perhaps,  well  that  the  rule  is  com- 
pulsory, for  otherwise  we  should  find  unscrupulous 
plumbing  contractors  and  speculative  builders  still 
making  use  of  what  they  must  know  is  an  unsatisfac- 
tory material  for  drainage  purposes.  Cast  iron  pipe, 
even  of  the  heaviest  and  best  quality,  is  apt  to  have 
sand-holes  or  imperfect  seams,  hence  by  far  the  great-, 
est  security  lies  in  ordering  from  the  manufacturers, 
pipes  and  fittings  which  have  been  tested  at  the 
foundry  by  hydrostatic  pressure. 

The  most  recent  improvement,  as  regards  this  point, 
consists  in  the  more  extensive  application  of  screw- 
jointed,  wrought  iron  pipe  for  drainage  purposes, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  high  buildings.  Having 


IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  HOUSE  DRAINAGE.    231 

been,  to  some  extent,  personally  connected  with  the 
introduction  of  this  system  in  the  Eastern  States,  I 
cannot  help  remarking  that  a  wonderful  change  in 
opinion  has  taken  place  in  architects'  offices,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  also  in  plumbers'  shops,  regarding  the 
merits  of  wrought  iron  pipe  and  the  use  of  screw- 
joints  in  place  of  lead-caulked  joints  for  purposes  of 
drainage.  It  is  scarcely  ten  years  ago  when  as  chief 
engineer  of  a  now  defunct  house  drainage  company  I 
discussed  with  architects  the  advantages  incident  to 
the  new  method  of  drainage.  At  that  time  but  a  few 
architects  went  on  record  as  in  favor  of  the  screw- 
joint  construction.  The  majority,  guided  in  many 
cases  by  the  advice  of  the  plumbers  estimating  in 
their  offices,  were  opposed  to  the  use  of  wrought  iron 
for  drain,  soil  and  vent  pipes.  The  pipes  which  were 
used  then  by  the  advocates  of  the  screw-jointed 
wrought  iron  system  were  without  exception  pro- 
tected against  rust,  either  by  a  thorough  application 
of  coal  tar  or  by  dipping  the  pipes  while  heated,  into 
a  bath  of  hot  asphalt,  or  else  the  pipes  and  fittings 
were  made  rustless  by  the  Bower-Barff  process,  or 
finally,  galvanized  pipes  were  used,  particularly  for 
vent  lines.  One  can  readily  understand  my  surprise 
to  find  at  the  present  time,  buildings  in  which  plain 
wrought  iron  pipes  are  used  for  purposes  of  house 
drainage,  the  pipes  not  being  in  any  way  protected 
against  corrosion.  The  mistake — for  a  mistake  it  is — 
can  be  explained  only  by  the  fact  that  the  Building 
Department  requires  cast  iron  pipe  to  be  plain  and 


232  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

uncoated,  but  wrought  iron  piping  should,  in  my 
judgment,  always  have  some  protecting  coating 
against  rust. 

Other  improvements  relating  to  materials,  consist 
in  the  more  extensive  use  of  drawn  lead  traps,  and  of 
brass  traps  in  place  of  cast  lead  pipes,  or  of  lead  traps 
with  hand-made  seams.  I  must,  however,  sound  a 
note  of  warning  against  the  use  of  certain  brass  traps 
with  cast  partitions,  which  are  often  found  to  have 
sand-holes,  and  are  then,  of  course,  only  a  delusion 
and  afford  no  protection  against  sewer  air.  The  use 
of  very  light  brass  tubing  for  exposed  waste  or  vent 
pipes  should  be  guarded  against,  as  also  the  use  of 
light  brass  traps  or  of  traps  with  rough  inside  sur- 
faces. Finally,  the  brass  pipe  should  be  of  iron  pipe 
size,  i.  e.,  full  bore,  and  not  restricted  in  diameter. 

I  pass  on  now  to  the  consideration  of  important 
recent  improvements  regarding  the  sizes  of  pipes  used 
for  drainage-purposes  and  the  manner  of  laying  the 
drains.  Of  the  old  brick  drains  of  large  size,  square 
in  shape  and  ill-adapted  to  the  removal  of  household 
wastes,  it  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  speak,  as  they 
belong  to  a  former  generation,  although  they  are 
occasionally,  even  now,  unearthed  in  the  overhauling 
of  older  mansions.  Up  to  within  a  recent  period,  it 
was  the  custom  to  use  for  house  drains,  round  pipes 
which  were  much  too  large  in  diameter  to  perform 
their  function  in  a  proper  manner.  Even-  the  small- 
est house  had  a  six-inch  drain  ;  larger  buildings  had 
nine,  ten  and  even  twelve  inch  pipes.  There  is  no 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          235, 

advantage,  and  there  are  considerable  disadvantages, 
in  using  pipes  of  too  large  bore.  The  old-fashioned 
absurd  ideas  regarding  the  necessity  for  large  pipes 
are  now  abandoned.  The  use  of  small  drains  is  a 
distinctive  achievement  of  modern  sanitary  drainage. 
It  is  usual  at  present  to  use  a  four-inch  pipe  for  the 
smaller  houses.  An  average-sized  four-story  dwell- 
ing can  be  efficiently  sewered  by  a  five-inch  drain, 
and  a  six-inch  sewer  is  sufficiently  large  for  a  man- 
sion. Extensive  buildings,  such  as  institutions,  office 
buildings,  etc.,  may  require  a  pipe  of  larger  discharg- 
ing capacity,  but  in  that  event  it  is  preferred  to  use 
two  or  more  drains  of  restricted  size  as  being  more 
liable  to  be  self-cleansing.  To  illustrate  :  The  entire 
waste  water  from  the  plumbing  fixtures  in  such  an 
extensive  building  (vertically)  as  the  Manhattan 
Life  Insurance  Company's  building  in  New  York 
City,  comprising  two  hundred  and  five  wash- 
basins, twenty-four  sinks,  fifty-two  urinals,  sixty-two 
water  closets  and  including  all  the  roof  water,  besides 
various  other  wastes,  is  successfully  removed  by 
means  of  two  six-inch  pipe  sewers  laid  with  a  fall  of 
one-quarter  inch  to  the  foot. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  soil  and  waste 
pipes  of  houses.  Formerly  five  and  six-inch  soil  pipes 
were  commonly  used  in  private  houses,  and  the  sink 
waste  pipe  was  at  least  three,  and  often  four  inches 
in  diameter.  It  is  now  the  rule  to  make  soil  pipes  of 
private  dwellings  four  inches,  and  kitchen  sink  wastes 
are  purposely  restricted  in  size  to  two  inches,  in  order 


234  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

to  be  more  self-cleansing-.  As  regards  the  branch 
wastes  from  fixtures,  the  modern  tendency  is  to  use 
small  pipe's,  and  not  only  a  vast  improvement,  but 
also  economy  in  design,  is  thereby  effected.  The 
size  of  traps  under  fixtures  is  likewise  restricted,  with 
the  advantage  that  the  traps  are  kept  well  flushed. 
It  is,  under  all  circumstances,  a  difficult  matter  to  keep 
traps  perfectly  clean,  but  better  results  are  undoubt- 
edly attained  where  the  diameter  of  traps  is  limited, 
in  order  to  concentrate  the  stream  and  thus  utilize 
the  same  in  scouring  the  channel. 

One  other  point  in  connection  with  sizes  of  waste 
pipes  is  worth  mentioning  :  I  refer  to  the  rainwater 
or  conductor  pipes.  The  sizes  of  these  pipes — in  fact, 
of  all  vertical  waste  pipes — cannot  be  determined  by 
mathematical  rules.  Whereas  sizes  of  horizontal  or 
graded  pipes  can  be  calculated  accurately  by  means 
of  hydraulic  formulae,  or  by  tables  evolved  from 
these,  I  know  of  no  rule  by  which  to  determine  the 
diameters  of  leader  pipes  for  roofs  of  given  areas  and 
of  known  pitch.  I  have  likewise  been  unable  to  find 
rules  derived  from  practical  experience  or  from  actual 
tests  and  experiments,  although  I  have  hunted  high 
and  low  for  them.  The  only  rule  of  thumb  which  I 
was  able  to  find  was  in  a  recent  German  architectural 
text-book,  according  to  which  publication  the  diam- 
eter of  a  leader  pipe  may  be  determined  by  allowing 
an  area  of  one  square  inch  in  the  pipe  for  each  sixty 
to  seventy  square  feet  of  roof  surface.  I  presume  the 
smaller  size  is  intended  for  roofs  of  a  flat  pitch,  and 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          235 

the  larger  size  for  steep  roofs.  It  is  not  stated  for 
what  rate  of  rainfall  the  rule  is  applicable.  Speaking 
generally,  heavy  rainfalls  are  much  more  frequent  in 
our  climate  than  in  Germany,  so  that  I  should  advise 
increasing,  where  this  rule  is  followed,  the  diameter 
obtained,  somewhat,  to  provide  for  efficient  roof 
drainage  in  case  of  very  heavy  sudden  showers.  This 
question  of  determining  the  size  of  conductor  pipes  is 
one  that  constantly  occurs  to  architects  and  sanitary 
engineers,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  experiments  may 
be  undertaken  tending  to  the  solution  of  the  problem 
from  a  practical  point  of  view. 

This  brings  to  me  another  question,  viz  :  The  man- 
ner of  laying  drains.  Whereas  formerly  drains  were 
buried  in  the  ground  and  thus  became  entirely  inac- 
cessible, it  is  now  much  preferred  to  carry  the  main 
drain  of  a  house  in  plain  sight  above  the  cellar  floor, 
either  suspended  from  the  ceiling  or  fastened  along 
the  cellar  wall.  Until  quite  recently  it  was  the  rule 
where  the  drain  was  unavoidably  laid  beneath  the 
cellar  floor  in  order  to  drain  fixtures  on  this  level, 
to  place  the  pipe  in  a  trench  formed  of  brick  walls 
with  a  concrete  bottom,  and  covered  with  an  iron 
cover.  The  drain  was  thus  kept  accessible  in  its 
entire  length.  A  few  architects  and  some  engineers 
still  favor  this  method  of  construction.  Underground 
trenches,  as  usually  built,  are  liable  to  become  rat 
runs,  to  accumulate  dampness  and  dirt,  and  to  con- 
stitute harboring  places  for  vermin.  In  my  judg- 
ment, it  is  more  preferable  after  the  underground 


236  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

drains  have  been  thoroughly  tested  and  made  water- 
tight, to  bed  the  same  in  the  concrete  and  to  rely  for 
access  upon  a  number  of  suitably  placed  and  suitably 
arranged  cleaning  handholes,  made  accessible  by 
brick  manholes  with  iron  covers.  Such  inspection 
and  cleaning  handholes  are  very  desirable  in  a  drain- 
age system,  and  they  should  be  abundantly  provided 
even  where  the  pipe  is  carried  above  the  floor,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  cutting  of  pipes,  a  habit  only  too 
common  with  thoughtless  mechanics  in  case  of  a  stop- 
page in  the  pipes. 

Let  us  now  give  brief  consideration  to  a  further 
point  in  which  house  drainage  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved. Some  years  ago  plans  for  the  drainage  of 
houses  were  submitted  to  me,  in  which  the  water 
closet  pipes  or  soil  pipes  were  kept  separate  and  dis- 
tinct from  bath,  lavatory  and  sink  wastes.  This 
double  system,  as  you  will  readily  comprehend,  ren- 
dered the  drainage  system  much  more  complicated 
and  vastly  more  expensive  without  any  correspond- 
ing advantage.  This  mistake  doubtless  arose  from 
following  too  closely  the  prevailing  English  practice 
as  described  in  the  English  text-books  on  plumbing. 
In  the  absence  of  any  practical  American  books  on 
house  drainage  and  plumbing,  architects  had  to  rely 
largely,  ten  and  more  years  ago,  on  the  study  of 
English  works  on  drainage.  It  is  not  necessary,  nor 
even  desirable,  to  do  this  now-a-days,  as  there  are 
available  several  good  books  on  the  subjects  by 
American  authors,  which  clearly  describe  the  Ameri- 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          237 

can  practice. *  Other  features  of  the  English  practice 
of  draining  houses,  which  are  equally  inapplicable 
here  on  account  of  differences  in  the  climatic  condi- 
tions, are  the  placing  of  the  soil  pipes  on  the  outside 
of  the  house,  and  the  running  of  the  smaller  wastes, 
such  as  bath  and  basin  wastes  over  outside  gullies. 

A  further  curious  mistake  which  I  have  encoun- 
tered in  plumbing  plans,  is  the  requirement  that  in 
case  of  bathrooms  with  water  closets  located  verti- 
cally over  each  other  on  succeeding  floors,  there 
should  be  a  separate  line  of  soil  pipe  for  the  bath- 
room of  each  floor,  thus  entailing  a  needless  compli- 
cation, a  multiplication  of  soil  pipe  stacks  and  a 
greatly  increased  cost  of  plumbing.  The  exactly 


*  That  this  point  is  not  universally  understood,  will  appear  from  the  following 
criticism,  which  appeared  in  a  medical  journal  about  a  diagram  showing  the  proper 
arrangement  of  a  system  of  house  drains  and  soil  pipes,  published  by  the  author  : 

"On  one  point  only  does  Mr  Gerhard's  paper  seem  open  to  criticism.  In  his 
drawing  of  a  section  of  a  house,  the  waste  pipes  from  the  washbowl,  the  bathtub 
and  the  kitchen  sink,  all  appear  to  be  connected  directly  with  the  soil  pipe.  If 
this  be  the  correct  reading  of  the  sketch — Mr.  Gerhard  is  evidently  so  practical  a 
man  that  we  make  this  proviso — we  must  certainly  dissent  from  his  practice  in  this 
particular.  It  is  surely  the  only  safe  and  sound  plan  to  arrange  that  the  waste  pipe 
from  bath,  washbowls,  kitchen  sinks  and  all  other  sinks,  shall  never  be  directly 
connected  with  the  soil  pipe,  but  shall  independently  empty  outside  the  house  into 
a  combined  basin  and  siphon,  commonly  known  as  a  gully  trap,  the  trap  being 
connected  with  the  house  drain.  Then,  if  notwithstanding  all  precautions  in  the 
shape  of  fresh  air  openings,  any  gas  should  come  through  the  house  drain  and  pass 
the  system  of  the  gully  trap,  it  will  be  easier  for  it  to  disperse  outside  the  house 
than  to  pass  up  any  of  the  unconnected  waste  pipes." 

In  reply  to  this  criticism  I  wrote  as  follows  : 

"  Your  reviewer  evidently  has  in  mind  the  English  system  of  plumbing  work, 
wherein  such  a  separation  is  carried  out.  In  the  climate  of  the  United  States  a 
discharge  of  waste  pipes  from  basins,  bathtubs  or  sinks  over  an  outside  gully  is 
impracticable  and  inadmissible,  owing  to  the  danger  of  freezing  In  American 
plumbing  practice  the  soil  pipe  for  the  water  closets  in  the  house  almost  invariably 
receives  other  branch  wastes  from  bathtubs,  washbasins,  sinks,  etc.,  and  this  is 
considered  a  perfectly  safe  practice,  provided  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  are  made  of 
extra  heavy  cast  iron  and  the  joints  tested  under  water  pressure,  and  also  provided 


238  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

opposite  principles  are  followed  to-day  :  the  work  is 
simplified  as  much  as  possible  ;  plumbing  fixtures  in 
houses  planned  by  architects  are  grouped  together, 
and  the  drainage  is  concentrated  as  far  as  practicable 
in  a  single  line  of  pipe,  thus  securing  an  abundantly 
flushed  line  and  economy  in  construction. 

Not  very  long  ago  the  pipes  pertaining  to  the  drain- 
age system  of  a  house  were  universally  put  out  of 
sight  and  the  fixtures  concealed  by  expensive  and— 
as  I  think — useless  cabinet  work.  Drains  were  placed 
under  the  cellar  floor  and  rendered  inaccessible,  soil 
pipes  were  built  into  the  walls,  waste  and  vent  pipes 
bedded  in  plastered  partitions,  while  supply  pipes  were 


the  fixtures  are  well  and  safely  trapped,  so  that  there  may  not  exist  any  danger  of 
leakage  of  sewer  air  through  defective  joints  or  through  the  traps  being  liable  to 
siphonage  or  back-pressure. 

I  refer  you,  in  order  to  confirm  my  statements,  to  the  plumbing  rules  and  regu- 
lations of  our  large  cities,  notably  those  of  New  York  City,  Brooklyn,  Philadel- 
phia, Chicago,  Boston  and  Washington.  In  all  these  the  soil  pipe  may  receive  the 
flow,  not  only  from  water  closets,  but  from  adjacent  fixtures  as  well.  In  the  new 
Asylum  for  Insane  Criminals  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  at  the  St.  Lawrence 
State  Hospital  at  Ogdensburg,  the  drainage  and  plumbing  of  which  institutions 
were  under  my  immediate  charge,  the  soil  pipes  for  water  closets  receive  in  many 
cases  the  wastes  from  basins  and  bathtubs,  and  yet  the  buildings  are  perfectly  free 
from  any  escape  of  sewer  air." 

Thereupon  the  reviewer  of  my  book  replied  as  follows  : 

"  Mr.  Gerhard's  objection  to  my  criticism  is  reasonable  and  consistent  in  so  far 
as  it  applies  to  localities  where  climatic  disabilities  make  it  impracticable  to  adopt 
the  outside  gully  system.  But  the  fact  that  the  plumbing  regulations  in  the  cities 
named  by  Mr.  Gerhard — all  of  which  labor  under  the  climatic  disadvantages  to 
which  he  refers— permit  the  flow  into  the  soil  pipe  not  only  of  water  closets  but  of 
bathtubs  and  adjacent  fixtures,  is  no  proof  that  under  different  climatic  conditions 
such  practice  is  either  the  safest  or  the  best. 

On  the  contrary,  Mr.  Gerhard's  own  statement  is  the  strongest  argument  he 
could  have  adduced  in  favor  of  a  system  which,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  minimises  the 
risk  of  sewer  gas.  No  doubt,  under  the  expert  supervision  of  Mr.  Gerhard,  all 
possible  safeguards  would  be  conscientiously  attended  to.  But  .the  ordinary  citi- 
zen, as  a  rule,  has  to  deal  with  the  average  architect  and  the  careless  plumber.  Of 
the  shortcomings  of  either  one  or  the  other  of  these,  we  venture  to  say  that  if  Mr. 
Gerhard  told  all  he  knew,  '  he  could  a  tale  unfold.'  " 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          239 

run  under  hardwood  or  tiled  floors.  In  case  of  acci- 
dent to  any  of  the  pipes,  nobody  knew  where  to  look 
for  them,  floors  were  torn  open,  the  plastering  cut,  and 
rich  wall  decorations  destroyed  in  the  efforts  to  reach 
the  pipes.  One  of  the  chief  features  of  modern  work 
is  the  exposure  of  all  pipes.  Architects  and  owners 
have  now  become  accustomed  to  this  improvement ; 
there  are  many  who  even  fancy  the  new  arrange- 
ment. By  a  clever  study  of  the  house  plans,  it  is 
often  feasible  to  carry  pipes  exposed,  i.  e.,  outside  of 
walls  or  partitions,  even  on  the  parlor  floor.  In  some 
houses  built  by  our  most  prominent  architects,  I  have 
found  on  this  floor  the  main  pipe  lines  kept  accessible 
by  a  hardwood  hinged  pipe  casing.  What  a  great 
contrast  with  the  builders'  method  of  the  past  of  box- 
ing everything  up — pipes,  fixtures  and  all  ! 

Just  a  few  words  on  the  so-called  open  arrange- 
ment of  fixtures.  A  decided  improvement  in  the 
character  of  workmanship  has  been  brought  about  by 
the  improved  method  of  keeping  plumbing  fixtures 
exposed  to  view.  The  advantages  from  the  point  of 
view  of  maintenance  of  cleanliness  and  ease  of  in- 
spection are  too  apparent  to  need  further  discussion. 
I  wish  to  dwrell,  however,  for  a  moment,  upon  one 
point  which  seems  to  be  less  well  understood.  In 
conversation  not  long  ago  with  one  of  our  busiest 
architects,  he  remarked  that  the  open  arrangement 
of  plumbing  fixtures  entailed  a  largely  increased  labor 
on  the  part  of  servants  and,  therefore,  was  not  looked 
upon  with  favor  by  householders.  This  is,  without 


240  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

doubt,  true  of  exposed  nickel  plated  piping.  It  must 
not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  nickel  plated  work 
and  exposed  work  are  not  one  and  the  same  thing. 
You  can  have  one  without  the  other.  From  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view,  a  job  may  be  equally  well  and 
equally  safely  done  if  constructed  of  lead  and  after- 
wards merely  painted  or  bronzed.  Where  more 
elaborate  or  expensive  work  is  desired,  the  piping 
may  be  electro-copper  bronzed  or  finished  in  oxidized 
silver,  both  of  which  do  not  require  the  constant 
polishing  which  nickel  finish  needs  to  keep  it  bright. 

Whereas  in  former  years  plumbing  fixtures  were 
scattered  all  over  the  house,  necessitating  a  complex 
system  of  plumbing  pipes,  and  often  endangering  the 
health  of  the  occupants  by  ill-contrived  and  defective 
fixtures  placed  in  the  bedrooms,  the  modern  practice 
of  architects,  and  one  which  cannot  be  too  highly 
praised,  is  to  confine  plumbing  work  to  the  bathroom, 
to  the  kitchen,  pantry  and  laundry.  The  necessary 
fixtures  are  placed,  as  far  as  the  house  plan  permits, 
in  vertical  groups,  and  all  appliances,  and  the  water 
closet  and  slop  sinks  in  particular,  are  placed  in  well- 
lighted  and  well-ventilated  apartments. 

There  is  one  mistake,  however,  which  is  still  fre- 
quently committed,  to  which  I  have  elsewhere  in  this 
book  called  attention.  The  mistake  to  which  I  allude 
is  the  placing  of  the  water  closet  in  the  same  room 
where  the  bathtub  or  the  wash-basin  are  located. 
This  is  objectionable  on  aesthetic  as  well  as  on  prac- 
tical grounds.  It  is  particularly  so  in  the  case  of  the 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          24! 

smaller  houses,  and  in  apartment  houses  with  only 
one  bathroom.  In  more  elaborate  houses  of  rich  peo- 
ple, where  there  are  several  bathrooms,  the  separation 
of  the  water  closet  is  not  so  necessary  for  practical 
reasons,  but  I  think  that  a  bathroom  with  a  water 
closet  can,  in  all  cases,  be  made  much  more  inviting 
by  contriving  an  ornamental  screen,  or  a  low  parti- 
tion separating  the  water  closet  from  the  other  fix- 
tures. The  partition  may  be  lined  with  marble  or 
tiling  and  its  upper  part  may  be  constructed  of  open 
fretwork.  I  have  in  mind  several  exquisitely  finished 
bathrooms,  designed  by  progressive  architects,  in 
which  this  division  of  the  room  was  made  a  success- 
ful and  greatly  appreciated  feature. 

Much  improvement  is  noticeable  in  the  selection  of 
suitable  and  sanitary  plumbing  appliances. 

The  objectionable  pan  closet  is  seldom  encountered 
in  modern  plumbing  work,  plunger  closets  are  out  of 
date,  valve  closets  are  no  longer  fitted  up,  and  im- 
proved water  closet  troughs  have  in  factories  and 
schools  taken  the  place  of  the  former  privy  sink. 
Wooden  laundry  tubs  are  no  longer  common,  because 
better  tubs  of  non-absorbent  material  may  be  obtained 
at  reasonable  cost. 

As  regards  the  most  important  sanitary  fixture, 
namely,  the  water  closet,  the  number  of  apparatus  of 
different  make  and  construction  is  legion.  Practi- 
cally, however,  the  choice  lies  between  only  a  few 
approved  types,  viz.:  the  flushing  rim  long  hoppers, 
which  are  good  but  require  a  large  quantity  of  flush- 


242  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ing-  water,  and  the  improved  pedestal  short  hoppers  ; 
the  siphon  and  siphon-jet  closets  ;  and  finally,  the  so- 
called  wash-down  closets,  which  have  a  vigorous  and 
direct  flush.  It  will  be  noticed  that  I  do  not  include 
in  this  list  the  wash-out  closets,  because  while  I  do 
not  wish  to  condemn  them  too  severely,  I  cannot 
bring  myself  to  regard  them  with  much  favor.  They 
have  several  objectionable  features  which  do  not 
commend  them  to  me  as  a  perfectly  sanitary  fixture. 
They  are,  notwithstanding  these  facts,  very  popular 
at  the  present  time.  Popularity,  however,  is  not 
always  a  just  criterion  of  fitness,  for  the  same  thing- 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  case  with  the  Jennings 
and  the  Zane  plunger  closets,  with  the  Hellyer  or 
valve  closet,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  now  out  of 
date. 

Two  points  require  attention  where  porcelain  water 
closets  with  trap  above  the  floor  are  used.  One  is  the 
floor  joint,  which  being  on  the  sewer  side  of  the  water 
closet  trap,  must  be  made  tight.  The  other  is  the  con- 
nection between  the  piping  and  the  earthenware  horns 
of  the  bowls.  If  these  are  made  rigid,  breakage  of 
the  earthenware  is  the  result  of  the  slightest  settle- 
ment of  the  floor.  A  flexible  connection  is,  therefore, 
much  to  be  preferred  and  can  now  be  obtained  with 
many  of  the  types  of  closets  named. 

I  shall  not  discuss  in  detail  the  requirements  of 
water  closets,  as  this  was  done  by  me  elsewhere,  but 
must  pass  on  to  review  briefly  the  other  plumbing- 
appliances  of  houses. 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          243 

Speaking  of  washbasins,  we  may  distinguish  four 
principal  types,  viz  : 

1.  Tip-up  basins. 

2.  Chain  and  plug  basins. 

3.  Open  stand-pipe  overflow  basins. 

4.  Secret  waste  valve  basins. 

Tip-up  basins  are  generally  condemned,  because  in 
their  usual  form  they  have  objectionable  features.  If 
it  were  possible  to  arrange  the  receiver  so  that  it 
would  not  become  foul,  or  that  it  was  readily  access- 
ible for  cleaning,  this  type  of  basin  would  have  many 
merits.  It  is,  without  doubt,  very  convenient  in  use, 
has  no  concealed  overflow,  no  chain  and  plug,  is  rap- 
idly emptied  and  effectively  flushes  its  waste  pipe  and 
trap  at  each  discharge. 

The  objections  to  the  second  type,  the  common 
chain  and  plug  basin,  are  too  well  known  to  need 
further  comment.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  state 
that  there  have  recently  been  put  upon  the  market 
some  modified  forms  of  this  type,  which  I  consider 
great  improvements  upon  the  ordinary  type.  One  is 
a  siphon  basin  which  empties  rapidly,  and  flushes  its 
overflow  at  each  discharge.  The  overflow7  channel 
is  so  shaped  that  when  the  plug  is  inserted  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bowl  and  the  same  filled  with  water,  the 
overflow  is  trapped.  In  office  buildings  and  in  hotels, 
where  a  stand-pipe  overflow  basin  or  a  bowl  with 
waste  valve  is  too  expensive  and  too  complicated  for 
general  use,  the  siphon  form  of  basin  has  much  to 
recommend  it.  The  other  improved  form  is  a  chain 


244  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  plug-  bowl  in  which  the  waste  outlet  has  been 
greatly  enlarged,  and  which  has  the  usually  hidden 
overflow  channel  made  much  shorter  and  accessible 
by  means  of  a  removable  strainer. 

The  third  type  of  basin  has  an  open  stand  pipe 
overflow,  and  there  .are  numerous  modifications  of 
the  device  for  raising  the  stand  pipe.  From  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view  this  type  has,  undoubtedly,  the 
greatest  merit  of  all  forms,  still  my  experience  has 
been  that  the  general  public  is  hardly  sufficiently  edu- 
cated in  sanitary  matters  to  appreciate  its  merits.  By 
many  this  form  of  basin  is  utterly  condemned  on 
account  of  its  odd  shape  and  appearance.  The  favor- 
ite form  of  basin  just  now  is  the  one  which  has  the  most 
objections  from  the  hygienic  standpoint,  namely,  the 
bowl  with  secret  waste  valve.  To  discuss  its  objec- 
tionable features  in  detail  would  lead  me  too  far. 

Regarding  that  valuable  fixture  for  personal  clean- 
liness, the  tub  or  bathtub,  with  its  various  modified 
forms,  such  as  the  foot-tub,  the  sitz-bath,  the  hip- 
bath, the  bidet,  etc.,  I  would  state  that  tubs  of  \vood 
lined  with  copper  are  less  used  than  formerly  in  pri- 
vate houses,  probably  because  they  always  require 
some  sort  of  wooden  casing,  and  also  because  they 
lose  their  bright  appearance  in  use.  Enameled  iron 
tubs,  standing  free  from  the  wall  and  raised  from  the 
floor,  constitute  a  satisfactory  sanitary  fixture,  which 
is  only  surpassed  by  the  beautiful  all-porcelain  bath- 
tubs. Both  kinds  of  tubs  are  now  obtainable  with  a 
glazed  roll  rim,  thus  doing  away  entirely  with  all 


IMPROVED  METHODS  OF  HOUSE  DRAINAGE.    245 

woodwork.  I  ought,  perhaps,  to  mention  in  this  con- 
nection, that  a  great  improvement  in  the  manufacture 
of  American  earthenware  has  recently  taken  place, 
and  that  it  is  now  for  the  first  time  possible  to  obtain 
porcelain  bathtubs  made  in  this  country.  In  regard 
to  the  appliances  used  for  holding  water  in  the  bath- 
tub and  for  emptying  the  same,  much  of  what  I  said 
of  wash-basins  applies  here.  In  this  matter  I  may 
appear  to  be  old-fashioned,  when  I  state  that  my 
decided  preference  is  for  an  open  stand  pipe  overflow. 

For  baths  in  public  institutions,  for  baths  in  fac- 
tories, and  for  people's  baths,  there  is  a  growing  ten- 
dency to  discard  the  tub-bath  in  favor  of  the  rain  or 
spray  bath,  which  is  greatly  superior  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view,  besides  having  many  economical  ad- 
vantages. (See  chapter  on  "The  Modern  Rain 
Bath,"  in  Vol.  II.) 

Slop  sinks  and  housemaids'  sinks  are  obtainable  in 
a  variety  of  serviceable  forms,  most  of  them  excellent 
from  the  sanitarian's  point  of  view.  I  wish  to  empha- 
size the  fact  that  a  flushing  cistern  is  quite  as  essential 
in  the  case  of  a  slop  sink  as  in  that  of  water  closets. 
An  ingenious  and  novel  arrangement  consists  of  a  slop 
sink  which  flushes  itself  automatically  each  time  slops 
are  emptied  into  it. 

Kitchen  sinks  are  likewise  obtainable  in  a  variety  of 
materials.  This  fixture  is  much  improved  by  chang- 
ing the  dribbling  stream  passing  through  its  waste 
into  a  quick  and  effective  flush.  Attempts  in  this 
direction  have  been  made  with  some  success,  and  the 


246  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

devices  employed  are  certainly  worth  considering. 
Incidentally,  the  question  of  avoiding  the  kitchen 
grease  nuisance  is  thereby  solved  in  a  better  way,  to 
my  mind,  than  by  the  employment  of  grease  traps  at 
the  sinks,  which  invariably  constitute  a  nuisance,  are 
usually  forgotten  or  neglected  and  are  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended. I  must  content  myself  with  a  mere 
allusion  to  the  subject. 

Of  urinals,  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  that  in 
private  houses  their  use  is  not  to  be  encouraged,  as 
the  fixture  is  very  difficult  to  keep  clean.  In  offices 
and  in  public  buildings,  such  as  hotels,  railroad  sta- 
tions, court  houses,  etc.,  the  fixture  is  a  necessity,  and 
great  attention  is  required  not  only  in  the  fitting  up, 
but  in  its  maintenance.  The  projecting  lip  of  porce- 
lain urinals  seems  to  me  to  be  of  doubtful  advantage 
One  point  in  the  fitting  up  of  the  fixture  is  worthy  of 
mention :  the  bowls  are  generally  set  up  too  high 
from  the  floor  slab.  I  find  it  is  better  to  set  them  at 
a  height  not  exceeding  twenty-two  inches  from  top 
of  lip  to  floor  line,  instead  of  twenty-four  or  even 
twenty-six  inches,  as  is  customary.  The  floor  slab  is 
thereby  kept  more  readily  free  from  drippings. 

In  fitting  up  plumbing  fixtures,  the  chief  aim  should 
always  be  the  avoidance  of  woodwork  at  and  around 
them.  All  fixtures  should  stand  free  from  the  walls 
and  be  accessible  on  all  sides.  Even  the  seats  of 
water  closets  are  now  attached  directly  to  the  bowl, 
the  closet  thus  stands  absolutely  free  and  detached 
from  the  wall,  and  the  entire  fixture  can  be  reached 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          247 

for  cleaning-  and  for  repairs.  In  one  respect,  how- 
ever, modern  plumbing  fixtures  are  open  to  consider- 
able improvement :  I  refer  to  the  undesirable  noisi- 
ness accompanying  the  flush  and  the  discharge  of  the 
fixtures.  This  problem,  as  experience  teaches,  is  not 
easily  solved. 

In  this  chapter  I  will  only  briefly  allude  to  the 
testing  of  plumbing  work.  All  work  should  be 
tested  before  acceptance,  as  knowledge  of  the  safety 
of  the  plumbing  work  can  only  be  obtained  in 
this  way.  I  regret  to  say  that  I  have  found  only 
very  few  mechanics  doing  plumbing  who  apply  to 
their  work  any  test,  except  where  this  is  specially  in- 
sisted upon  by  the  architect  or  the  engineer.  To  my 
mind,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  duties  which 
architects  owe  to  their  clients,  to  see  to  it  that  all 
work  is  tested.  For  new  work  we  have  the  water 
test  and  the  air  pressure  test.  This  should  include 
not  merely  the  main  horizontal  lines  and  the  vertical 
stacks,  but  likewise  all  the  branches  and  the  brass  fer- 
rule joints.  The  finished  work  should  be  tested  by 
the  peppermint  or  by  the  smoke  test,  which  help  to 
show  imperfections  in  the  joints  of  nickel  plated 
piping  and  at  the  floor  joints.  In  the  inspection  of 
old  work,  the  water  test,  which  is  the  best  test,  can- 
not, for  obvious  reasons,  be  applied,  and  here  the 
smoke  test,  or  the  test  with  oil  of  peppermint,  intelli- 
gently applied,  give  valuable  indications  as  to  the 
condition  of  the  work.  (See  the  chapter  on  ''Test- 
ing House  Drains.") 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

A  great  step  forward  would  be  made  and  plumbing 
work  vastly  simplified,  by  abolishing,  or  at  least 
modifying,  the  trap  vent  system.  There  are  at  pres- 
ent two  quite  different  methods  of  arranging  the  sys- 
tem of  trapping  the  fixtures  in  a  building.  In  the  one 
system,  which  is  in  accordance  with  the  majority  of 
plumbing  regulations,  and  is  the  one  at  present  en- 
forced in  New  York  City,  all  traps  must  be  back- 
aired  or  vented.  We  thus  obtain  a  duplicate  system 
of  pipe  lines,  the  work  is  complicated,  more  expen- 
sive and  may  become  more  unsafe,  on  account  of  the 
greater  number  of  pipe  joints  and  the  possibility  of 
"  by-passes."  The  other  system — the  one-pipe  sys- 
tem, as  we  may  call  it — is  distinguished  by  its.  greater 
simplicity,  economy  and,  as  I  maintain,  by  its  greater 
safety.  This  method  substitutes  non-siphoning  traps 
or  anti-siphon  trap  attachments  for  the  cumbersome 
method  of  back-airing.  In  this  system,  all  main  soil 
and  waste  lines  must  be  quite  as  fully  ventilated  by 
extending  them  the  full  size  up  to  the  roof  as  in  the 
usual  method.  All  fixtures  are  located  directly  at  the 
lines  carried  up  to  the  roof,  or  within  a  very  few  feet 
of  the  same.  Siphonage  of  the  traps  is  impossible 
under  the  ordinary  conditions,  quite  as  much  so  as  in 
the  back-airing  system.  You  will  find  the  majority 
of  plumbers  opposed  to  the  new  system  :  for  while  it 
simplifies  the  work,  it  reduces  the  amount  of  piping 
used  and  thereby  the  cost  of  the  work.  There  is  also 
much  prejudice  against  the  proposition,  many  plumb- 
ers seeming  to  fear  that  by  putting  themselves  openly 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          249 

on  record  as  in  favor  of  it,  they  would  by  others  be 
considered  as  not  quite  up  to  date  in  plumbing  mat- 
ters. The  fact  remains  undisputed — and  I  have  dem- 
onstrated it  in  many  cases  in  my  practice — that  the 
new  method  is,  at  least,  quite  as  safe  as  the  old  one. 
I  venture  to  predict  that  in  a  very  few  years  plumb- 
ing- laws  will  be  so  modified  as  to  leave  it  optional 
with  the  owner  or  architect  of  a  building  which 
method  he  will  adopt. * 

This  leads  me  to  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to 
plumbing  rules  and  regulations,  in  particular  of  those 
in  force  in  New  York  City.  Further  advancement 
in  plumbing  requires  the  revision  and  improvement  of 
the  plumbing  laws  of  the  Building  Department.  Far 
be  it  from  me  to  under-rate  the  good  which  the  pres- 
ent rules  have  accomplished  in  the  past.  Ours  is  not, 
however,  an  age  in  which  we  can  at  any  time  afford 
to  stand  still.  Constant  progress  is  made  in  every 
department  of  construction  and  the  researches  of  the 
practical  sciences  are  everywhere  utilized  and  em- 
bodied in  actual  practice.  Let  us  hope  to  see  soon  a  re- 
vision of  our  plumbing  laws.  Be  it  remembered  that 
the  plumbing  rules  of  our  metropolis  are  being  largely 
copied  by  other  cities.  We  cannot  afford  to  fall 
behind  in  this  matter.  Our  present  rules  are  too  in- 
definite in  many  details  ;  they  are  much  too  arbitrary 
in  others.  Take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  sizes  of 
drain  pipes,  of  soil  pipes,  of  vent  pipes,  the  diameter 
of  traps,  etc.  There  is  certainly  now  sufficient  prac- 


*  See  the  chapter  on  "  Simplified  Plumbing  Methods." 


250  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

tical  experience  available  to  lay  down  more  definite 
rules  as  to  sizes.  The  rules  should  also  in  the  future 
prohibit  fixtures  which  sanitary  science  has  long  ago 
recognized  as  being  absolutely  bad.  Pan  closets, 
wooden  sinks,  wooden  washtubs  and  privy  sinks 
should  no  longer  be  tolerated.* 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  interior  drainage,  I 
wish  to  consider  for  just  a  moment  the  prevailing 
practice  of  doing  plumbing  work.  It  is  without  doubt 
feasible  to  have  plumbing  work  done  by  day's  work 
by  a  contractor  of  known  integrity,  at  a  certain 
agreed  commission  or  profit  on  the  net  cost  of  labor 
and  material,  without  thereby  unduly  increasing  the 
cost  of  the  work.  Still,  as  a  rule,  the  owner  prefers 
to  make  a  contract  for  a  lump  sum  or  stated  figure. 
In  that  case,  the  recent  practice,  particularly  in  the 
case  of  high  office  buildings,  of  putting  the  plumb- 
ing— and  for  that  matter  the  heating  and  power 
plant,  the  electric  work  and  the  elevator  machinery— 
in  the  builder's  general  contract,  for  a  consideration 
which  usually  amounts  to  much  more  than  the  fee  of 
experts  who  would  plan  and  superintend  the  work  in 
the  owner  s  interest,  cannot  be  commended.  There  is  not, 
to  my  mind,  a  single  feature  of  merit  in  it,  and  there 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  good  reasons  why  these 
branches,  which  comprise  the  domestic  engineering 
work  of  buildings,  should  be  kept  separate  and  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  architect  or  the  mechanical, 


*  This  was  written  before  the  last  revision  of  the  rules,  made  in  January,  1897. 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.         251 

electrical  or  sanitary  engineering  expert  who  may  be 
associated  with  him. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  say  a  few  words  about  the 
outside  drainage  and  final  disposal  of  the  sewage, 
particularly  of  country  houses,  not  within  reach  of 
sewers.  These  are  questions  which  rarely  concern 
the  architect  directly,  but  about  which  it  is  neverthe- 
less useful  for  him  to  keep  informed. 

In  the  case  of  city  houses  the  outside  drainage  is 
apparently  a  very  simple  matter,  consisting  merely 
in  the  continuation  of  the  house  drain  to  the  public 
or  street  sewer.  Still,  even  the  sewer  connection  re- 
quires attention,  as  is  proved  by  a  recent  case  which 
happened  on  the  upper  west  side  of  this  city,  where  a 
builder  and  his  plumber  connected  a  whole  row  of 
dwellings  to  the  pipe  sewer  in  the  street  by  merely 
breaking  holes  into  the  sewer  and  sticking  the  house 
drains  through  it. 

The  final  disposal  of  the  sewage  from  habitations 
becomes  a  very  difficult  and  sometimes  troublesome 
matter  in  the  case  of  country  and  suburban  houses, 
not  within  reach  of  sewers.  The  purity  of  the  local 
water  supply  must  be  maintained,  the  contamination 
of  the  soil  and  likewise  the  pollution  of  the  air  must 
be  prevented  at  all  hazards.  To  accomplish  this,  the 
disgusting  and  health-menacing  cesspool  and  the 
privy  nuisance  must  be  done  away  with.  Bad  as  a 
single  cesspool  is,  the  evil  is  only  aggravated  by  the 
method  sometimes  pursued  of  having  one  cesspool 
for  the  water  closet  wastes  and  and  another  for  the 


252  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

kitchen  sink  wastes,  or  by  having  a  series  of  cesspools 
with  connecting  overflows. 

Two  methods  of  sewage  disposal  have  been  devised 
by  engineers  which  offer  a  successful  solution  of  the 
problem.  One  is  the  system  of  sub-surface  irrigation, 
the  other  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  irrigation  over 
the  surface.  Inasmuch  as  the  chief  requirements  are 
that  sewage  be  disposed  of  not  alone  without  injury 
to  health,  but  also  without  offence  to  sight  or  smell, 
it  is  not  often  practicable  to  run  the  sewage  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground  near  the  house.  Where  plenty 
of  land  is  available,  and  located  at  such  an  elevation 
that  sewage  can  be  conducted  to  it  by  gravity,  sur- 
face irrigation  is  by  far  the  best,  the  cheapest  and  the 
simplest  mode  of  disposal. 

The  other  system,  the  sub-surface  irrigation  system, 
has  been  in  successful  use  in  many  country  places. 
It  has  been  described  and  illustrated  in  a  preceding 
chapter  of  this  book,  hence  I  need  not  go  into  details. 
The  chief  features  of  this  system  are  the  following : 

1.  Carry  the  sewage  from  the  house  in  a  tight  pipe 
conduit  leading  to  a  sewage  or  flush  tank. 

2.  Collect  the  sewage  in  a  double-chambered  tank, 
the  first  chamber  being  intended  to  retain  the  solids 
and  kitchen  grease,  while  the  second  and  larger  tank 
receives  the  liquid  sewage  by  a  deeply-trapped  over- 
flow from  the  first  chamber. 

3.  Discharge  the  liquid  sewage  once  or  twice  a  day, 
by  means  of  an  automatic  siphon,  into  an  outlet  pipe 
leading  to  the  sewage  field. 


IMPROVED    METHODS    OF    HOUSE    DRAINAGE.          253. 

4.  Distribute  the  sewage  by  means  of  a  main  con- 
duit with  laterals,,  into  a  system  of  absorption  drain 
tiles,  laid  with  open  joints,  in  trenches  twelve  inches 
deep,  covered  up  with  earth. 

For  the  details  of  the  system  I  refer  to  Chapter  V., 
and  as  regards  its  execution,  I  must  warn  you  against 
having  such  work  done  by  contract.  Frequently  have 
I  been  asked  by  clients  and  by  architects,  to  under- 
take sewage  disposal  contracts,  but  I  have  always  de- 
clined to  do  so.  I  know  that  others  undertake  such 
contracts,  but  the  results  are  seldom  entirely  satisfac- 
tory. Often  the  mistake  is  made  of  laying  an  insuffi- 
cient number  of  absorption  tiles  ;  with  the  result  that 
after  a  season's  work  the  field  becomes  overcharged 
with  sewage.  I  also  find  sewage  disposal  systems 
laid  out  by  others  giving  trouble  because  the  tiles  are 
laid  with  too  steep  a  grade,  in  which  case  it  invariably 
happens  that  the  bulk  of  the  sewage  runs  to  the  lowest 
end  of  the  field,  where  it  often  breaks  out  on  the  sur- 
face. In  other  instances,  again,  I  find  the  distributing 
tiles  laid  two,  three  and  sometimes  even  four  feet 
below  the  ground  surface.  This  mistake  arises  from  a 
lack  of  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  system, 
which  require  the  sewage  to  be  discharged  into  the 
upper  well-aerated  layers  of  the  soil,  or  the  sub-sur- 
face, where  the  action  of  the  bacteria  converts  the 
sewage  and  the  particles  of  organic  matter  attaching 
to  the  earth  into  harmless  elements. 

A  bad  layout  of  the  distributing  tiles  invariably 
results  in  failure.  Sometimes  the  system  proves  un- 


254  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

successful  from  the  omission  of  the  first  or  intercept- 
ing chamber,  in  which  case  the  tiles  become  choked 
in  a  short  time.  Insufficient  attention  to  the  flush 
tank  is  another  frequent  reason  why  the  method  fails 
to  give  satisfaction.  Owners  of  country  houses,  after 
adopting  this  method  of  disposal,  generally  make  the 
mistake  of  assuming  that  the  same  is  automatic  and 
hence  needs,  after  completion,  no  further  attention. 
The  fact  is  that  nothing  is  automatic  in  the  system 
except  the  siphon  for  emptying  the  flush  tank,  but 
every  part  of  the  system,  including  the  siphon, 
needs  attention  and  intelligent  care  and  occasional 
cleaning. 

As  regards  the  flush  tank,  it  may  be  either  an  open 
or  a  closed  tank,  the  latter  being  preferable  in  all 
cases  where  the  flush  tank  must  be  placed  near  the 
house.  The  open  tank,  if  at  a  distance  from  the 
house,  is  better,  because  it  is  more  readily  accessible 
and  easier  to  clean.  The  tank  may  be  circular  in 
shape  or  else  oblong.  It  is  generally  built  of  brick- 
work, lined  with  Portland  cement.  Col.  Waring,  who 
introduced  this  system  from  England,  has  suggested 
lining  such  open  sewage  tanks  with  enameled  face 
brick,  or  with  marble.  I  agree  with  him  that  this  is 
quite  desirable  on  the  ground  of  greater  cleanliness. 
In  my  own  practice,  I  have  not  met  clients  who  were 
willing  to  incur  the  extra  expense  involved,  and  archi- 
tects with  whom  I  have  been  associated  in  such  work, 
prefer  putting  marble  or  slate  or  enamel  face  brick, 
where  it  will  show  to  better  advantage. 


VIII. 

THE  PROPER  ARRANGEMENT  OF   WATER 
CLOSET  AND  BATH  APARTMENTS. 

Buildings  located  in  a  sewered  street  should  always 
be  provided  with  water  closet  conveniences,  and 
dwelling  houses  in  particular  should  afford  facilities 
for  bathing.  Considered  from  a  health  point  of  view, 
the  water  closet  apparatus  and  the  bathing  appliance 
are  two  of  the  most  important  and  necessary  house- 
hold fixtures.  Let  me  say  right  here  that  it  is  a  mis- 
take to  consider  water  closets  in  houses  as  being 
merely  "necessary  evils."  Recent  practical  sanita- 
tion has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  they  can  readily 
be  made  safe  fixtures  for  the  convenience  and  com- 
fort of  the  occupants. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  mechanical  de- 
tails of  the  construction  and  fitting  up  of  these  appli- 
ances In  this  article  it  is  proposed  to  discuss  prin- 
cipally the  proper  arrangement  of  the  rooms  or  apart- 
ments in  which  such  fixtures  are  placed  in  different 
classes  of  buildings. 

Private  Residences. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  A  BATHROOM. — Beginning,  first,  with 
dwelling  houses  and  residences,  we  may  consider  the 
following  to  be  some  of  the  cardinal  requirements  of 
a  well-appointed  bathroom  :  It  should  be  conveniently 


256  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

located  ;  it  must  be  capable  of  being  well  heated  in 
winter  time  and  it  should  have  perfect  ventilation  at 
all  times,  but  also  be  free  from  draughts,  \vhich  in- 
volve danger  of  catching  cold  during  or  after 
bathing. 

Its  walls  and  floors  should  be  not  only  sound-proof, 
but  also  protected  against  dampness,  steam  vapor 
and  water.  It  should  be  well-lighted  and  comfort- 
ably furnished.  Its  dimensions  should  be  such  that 
the  bathroom  may  not  be  too  cramped  and  rendered 
uncomfortable  by  the  vapor  emanating  when  filling 
the  tub  with  hot  water.  The  plumbing  fixtures 
should  be  well  arranged  and  well  grouped,  and  all 
plumbing,  and  the  supply  pipes  in  particular,  should 
be  protected  against  exposure  to  frost. 

The  apartment  should  be  entirely  safe  from  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view,  i.  e.,  all  entrance  of  sewer  air  must 
be  carefully  guarded  against,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
the  whole  room  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily 
kept  clean. 

LOCATION. — Bathrooms  should  be  located  on  the 
upper  or  bedroom  floors  of  a  house,  as  accessible  as 
possible  to  the  various  bedrooms,  though  not  in  a  too 
prominent  position. 

In  the  smaller  houses  there  is  generally  but  one 
bathroom,  which  must  be  conveniently  reached  from 
all  the  chambers.  A  single  bathroom  for  ordinary- 
sized  houses  is  quite  sufficient,  particularly  where  the 
water  closet  is  placed,  as  it  should  be,  in  a  separate 
apartment, 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  257 

Larger  houses  have  several  bathrooms,  either  one 
on  each  of  the  bedroom  floors  or  sometimes  several 
bathrooms  on  one  floor.  In  the  largest  mansions  of 
the  rich  each  bedroom  suite  often  has  a  bathroom 
attached  to  it,  as  the  owner's  fancy  or  purse  may 
require.  Elsewhere  I  have  remarked  that  I  am  not 
in  favor  of  an  undue  multiplication  of  fixtures. 
Besides  leading  to  other  complications,  they  require 
a  larger  supply  of  hot  water  than  can  be  derived 
from  the  ordinary  kitchen  boiler. 

On  the  top  or  attic  floor  provision  is  often  made 
for  a  servants'  bathroom.  A  servants'  bath,  in  my 
judgment,  should  never  be  omitted  except  in  the 
smallest  houses,  where  the  necessary  space  for  the 
bath  cannot  be  spared.  Sometimes  it  may  be  more 
conveniently  arranged  in  the  basement,  in  the  laun- 
dry or  even  in  an  alcove  of  the  kitchen,  where  hot 
water  can  easily  be  had.  This  latter  is  an  essential 
condition,  for  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  servants 
will  not  use  a  bathtub  with  only  a  cold  water  faucet, 
necessitating  the  carrying  of  the  hot  water  for  a  bath 
in  pails.  We  should  encourage  in  our  domestics  the 
maintenance  of  cleanliness  as  well  as  provide  for  their 
comfort  and  health,  and  nothing  will  tend  more 
surely  to  secure  this  than  the  provision  of  a  simple 
bath  for  the  use  of  the  servants. 

The  family  bathroom  should  be  so  located  in  the 
plan  of  the  house  that  it  may  be  quickly  reached  from 
the  bedrooms  without  the  necessity  of  crossing  long 
halls  or  corridors,  which,  being  often  insufficiently 


258 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


heated,  would  expose  the  persons  to  the  danger  of 
catching  cold.  In  New  York  City  houses  three  dif- 
ferent arrangements  may  be  distinguished,  viz.:  the 
bathroom  may  be  located  in  the  rear  hall  room  of  the 


Fig.  68.— Rear  Hall  Bathroom. 

main  house;  or  it  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  house, 
or  finally  the  bathroom  is  located  in  an  extension. 

Fig.  68  illustrates  a  bathroom  placed  in  the  rear 
hall  room,  with  entrances  from  the  hall  and  from  the 
rear  bedroom,  and  with  one  window  to  the  outside. 
This  is  quite  a  common  arrangement  in  the  older  New 
York  City  houses. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


259 


Fig.  69  shows  a  bathroom  in  the  centre  of  the 
house,  with  a  special  shaft  for  light  and  air,  carried 
up  to  the  roof  and  covered  at  the  roof  with  a  venti- 
lating skylight.  This  arrangement  is  very  similar  to 
the  one  suggested  on  page  131,  Fig.  44. 

Fig.  70  is  another  plan  having  the  bathroom 
between  the  front  and  rear  rooms.  In  recent  years 

considerable  popular  preju- 
dice has  arisen  against  such 
a  location,  which  precludes 
an  outside  window,  but  in  my 
judgment  the  plan  is  feasible 
and  unobjectionable, provided 
there  is  safe  and  tight  plumb- 
ing, modern  arrrangement  of 
fixtures  and  ample  and  posi- 
tive ventilation  of  the  bath- 
room. An  inside  bathroom 
is,  as  a  rule,  more  convenient 
of  access,  and  it  is  certainly 
much  easier  to  heat  than  one 
located  in  an  extension. 

Figs.  71  and  72  are  plans 
of  city  houses  having  long  rear  extensions,  in  which 
the  bathroom  is  located  between  the  rear  and  the 
extension  bedrooms,  and  is  accessible  from  one  of 
the  rooms  as  well  as  from  the  hallway. 

Figs.  73  and  74  are  plans  of  houses  with  bathroom 
extensions  only,  and  in  this  case  the  bathroom  is  in- 
tended principally,  I  may  say  entirely,  for  the  occu- 
pants of  the  rear  bedroom. 


Fig.  69. — Bathroom  in  centre  of  house. 


260 


SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


Fig   70. — Plan  showing  bathroom  between  front  and  rear  rooms. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


26l 


Fig.  71. — Bathroom  in  rear  extension  ;  W.  C.  separate. 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS, 


Fig.  72 — Bathroom  in  rear  extension  ;  Vf.  C.  separate 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


Fig.  75  finally  is  a  plan  of  a  bathroom  extension,  in 
which  the  bathroom  is  accessible  both  from  the  rear 
bedroom  and  the  rear  service  hall. 

The  bathroom,  should,  wherever  practicable,  be 
located  over  minor  rooms,  such  as  pantries,  closets, 

kitchens  or  laundries,  so 
that  in  case  the  plumb- 
ing1, and  particularly  the 
service  pipes,  should 
become  deranged  o  r 
leaky,  necessitating  re- 
pairs, valuable  ceiling  or 
wall  decorations  in  the 
main  rooms  of  the  parlor 
floor  may  not  be  spoiled. 
Another  reason  for  pre- 
ferring such  location  is 


Fig   73  — Bathroom  extension. 

to  be  found  in  the  commendable  desire  to  arrange 
the  plumbing  pipes  as  compact  and  straight  as  pos- 
sible, with  the  fixtures  placed  in  vertical  groups 
directly  over  one  another.  In  planning,  the  archi- 
tect's aim  should  always  be  to  locate  the  bathroom 
convenient  to  the  plumbing  and  to  the  source  of  the 
hot  water  supply,  thereby  obtaining  direct,  short  and 
straight  waste  and  supply  connections.  All  pipes 


264 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


leading-  to  the  bathroom  should  be  so  laid  out  and  run 
as  not  to  be  exposed  to  freezing. 

SEPARATION  OF  WATER  CLOSET  AND  BATHROOM. — 
The  very  general  practice 
in  American  houses  of 
placing-  the  water  closet  in 
the  same  apartment  with 
the  bath  fixture  is  to  my 
mind,  decidedly  objection- 
able. The  separation  of 
the  two  fixtures  seems  to 
me  to  be  demanded  by 
practical  as  well  as  aesthet- 
ical  reasons.  Where  these 
fixtures  are  placed  together 
the  water  closet  cannot  be 


Fig    74. — Bathroom  extension. 


used  when  the  bath  is  in  use,  and  a  bath  cannot  be 
taken  when  the  water  closet  is  occupied.  This  draw- 
back is  particularly  noticeable  in  small  dwellings  and 
in  apartment  houses  having  only  a  single  bathroom 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


intended  for  general  use.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that 
the  separation  of  the  fixtures  requires  more  space, 
which  is  not  always  available,  and  I  also  realize  that 
there  are  cases  where  it  is  difficult  to  provide  a  sepa- 
rate window  to  each  apartment.  I,  however,  hold 
that  in  the  majority  of 
houses,  the  suggested  sep- 
aration can,  by  skillful 
planning,  be  carried  out, 
resulting  in  a  great  im- 
provement of  the  floor 
plan.*  Before  referring 
to  the  examples  given  in 
the  accompanying  illus- 
trations, let  us  inquire 
what  some  architectural 
and  sanitary  authorities 
have  to  say  regarding  this 
question. 

"  We  often  see 
baths  and  water 
closets  in  the  same 


Fig.  75- — Bathroom  in  rear  extension  ;  separate  water 
closet  for  servants  accessible  from  rear  hall. 


room,       says     one 
writer.     "  But   this 

is  objectionable,  for  it  matters  not  how  clean  a  water 
closet  is  kept,  there  is  often  an  unpleasant  smell  aris- 
ing from  it  as  well  as  the  inconvenience  attending  it." 
"The  ordinary  practice  of  providing  a  bathroom 


*  This  subject  has  been    already    discussed    by    the    author    on    page    131.      See. 
Figs.  43  and  44. 


266  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

with  a  water  closet,  often  the  only  one  in  the  house,  is 
a  barbarity  worthy  of  mediaeval  times,"  says  another 
authority.  "We  go,  or  ought  to  go,  to  the  bath  for 
cleanliness  and  purity,  and  it  is  abominable  to  place 
in  that  bathroom  the  outlet  of  a  reservoir  of  impurity. 
The  closet  ought  to  be  handy,  but  separate,  with  its 
own  window  and  entrance  lobby." 

Another  writer  says  :  "  It  is  a  very  common  cus- 
tom in  private  houses  to  place  the  bath  and  the  water 
closet  in  the  same  apartment.  That  this  is  an  undesir- 
able arrangement  is  evident,  for  the  water  closet  is, 
of  all  places  in  a  house,  that  in  which  a  foul  atmos- 
phere is  most  likely  to  be  encountered." 

"  It  is  always  highly  desirable  that  the  bathroom 
and  the  water  closet  should  be  separated,"  is  the  opin- 
ion of  another  expert,  "so  that  it  may  always  be  pos- 
sible to  use  one  without  the  other.  They  may  prob- 
ably be  placed  next  to  each  other  and  served  by  the 
same  soil  pipe." 

A  bath  and  a  water  closet  have,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
nothing  in  common  except  the  soil  pipe,  with  which, 
according  the  best  American  plumbing  practice,  and 
contrary  to  the  English  practice,  they  may  both  be 
safely  connected. 

Referring  now  again  to  the  illustrations,  which  are 
all  taken  from  actually  carried  out  examples  from  the 
author's  practice,  Fig.  68  shows  the  second  floor  plan 
of  a  city  house  in  which  the  water  closet  is  kept  sep- 
arate from  the  bath.  Unfortunately,  as  usually 
arranged,  the  only  means  provided  for  the  ventilation 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  267 

of  the  water  closet  apartment  is  the  window  opening 
into  the  bathroom,  so  that,  to  all  practical  purpose 
and  intent,  the  fixtures  may  be  considered  as  located 
together.  Where  such  a  plan  is  adopted,  the  window 
between  bathroom  and  water  closet*  should  be  a  fixed 
sash  for  light  only,  and  the  water  closet  should  have 
a  separate  ventilating  flue,  preferably  with  gas  burner, 
carried  vertically  up  to  the  roof.  Where  the  space  on 
the  floors  directly  above  can  be  spared,  it  is  advisable 
to  place  over  the  water  closet  a  large  ventilating 
shaft,  covered  on  the  roof  by  a  good  form  of  venti- 
lating skylight.  This  also  serves  to  sufficiently  light 
the  apartment,  and  the  window  into  the  bathroom 
can  then  be  dispensed  with. 

Fig.  69  shows  how  the  water  closet  and  the  bath 
may  be  readily  separated  and  yet  each  have  a  win- 
dow, abutting  on  a  large  light  and  air  shaft.  Such 
an  arrangement  would  seem  to  be  particularly 
adapted  to  interior  bath  and  water  closet  rooms  of 
apartment  houses. 

Fig.  71  illustrates  a  very  good  arrangement  secur- 
ing separate  bath  and  water  closet  conveniences  in 
rear  extensions  of  city  houses.  The  water  closet  has 
a  separate  window  to  the  rear  yard  and  a  separate 
entrance  door  from  the  hallway.  The  bath  and  lava- 
tory are  located  in  a  large  room,  communicating  with 
the  hall  and  with  one  of  the  bedrooms,  and  having  a 
separate  window. 

In  Fig.  72  I  illustrate  a  similar  plan,  where  the  bath- 
room is  in  the  extension,  while  the  water  closet  is 


268  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

located  in  a  separate  apartment  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
main  house. 

In  larger  houses,  with  several  bathrooms  on  one 
floor,  or  wherever  a  bathroom  is  attached  to  every 
bedroom  suite,  the  bath  and  the  closet  may  be  placed 
together,  although  even  then  it  is  preferable  to  locate 
the  bath  in  a  dressing  room  and  the  water  closet  and 
lavatory  in  an  adjoining  apartment.  In  bachelor's 
apartments,  generally  occupied  by  only  one  or  two 
persons,  the  water  closet  may,  for  simplicity's  sake, 
be  placed  in  the  bathroom.  A  good  and  compact 
arrangement  of  such  a  room,  where  space  cannot  be 
afforded  for  a  separate  water  closet  is  shown  in  per- 
spective in  Plate  II.,  the  example  being  taken  from 
a  bathroom  in  a  large  hotel  building  in  New  York 
City,  the  plumbing  of  which  was  superintended  by 
the  writer. 

But  even  where  the  bathroom  is  intended  for  only 
a  single  bedroom,  the  apartment  can  be  made  much 
more  inviting  by  a  partial  separation,  as  shown  in 
plan  in  Figs.  73  and  74,  and  in  detail  in  Figs.  76,  77 
and  78.  In  Fig.  73  the  first  room  reached  from  the 
bedroom  contains  the  lavatory  and  the  bath,  and  the 
water  closet  and  a  sitz  bath,  located  in  the  next  apart- 
ment, are  separated  from  it  by  a  partition,  the  lower 
part  of  which  is  built  solid  and  the  upper  part  arranged 
with  open  decorative  woodwork. 

Plate  III.  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  bathroom, 
shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  73.  It  was  designed  by  an  able 
firm  of  New  York  architects,  and  cleverly  and  artisti- 


Plate  II. — Private  bathroom  in  hotel. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  269 

cally  finished  and  decorated,  as  the  picture  shows, 
In  this  room  the  walls  are  wainscoted  all  around  with 
marble  and  the  floor  is  finished  in  mosaic  tiling  except 
under  the  fixtures,  where  marble  slabs  are  placed. 
The  floor  in  the  middle  of  the  room  is  covered  with 
loose  rugs.  One  needs  only  to  have  seen  such  an 
arrangement  to  become  convinced  of  its  merits  and 
superiority  from  both  the  artistic  and  practical  stand- 
point. 

Another  extension  bathroom  is  shown  in  plan, 
Fig.  74.0  Here  the  water  closet  is  partially  screened 
from  view  by  a  partition,  finished  with  glazed  tiling 
and  kept  partly  open  near  the  ceiling  by  means  of 
ornamental  woodwork.  Figs.  76,  77  and  78  show  in 
detail  elevations  and  sections  of  this  highly  success- 
ful bathroom  scheme. 

In  both  bathrooms,  Figs.  73  and  74,  the  advantage 
is  secured  of  having  direct  light  from  windows  on 
two  sides  of  the  room. 

HEATING. — A  cold  bathroom  is  worse  than  useless  ; 
it  cannot  be  used  to  take  the  daily  bath,  and  in  cold 
weather  the  plumbing  pipes  are  liable  to  freeze  and  to 
cause  damage  by  leakage.  Yet  there  are  numerous 
dwelling  houses  with  bathrooms  which  cannot  be 
heated,  except  by  a  portable  oil  or  gas  stove.  In  a 
bathroom  more  heat  is  wanted  than  in  the  sitting 
room ;  children,  old  people  and  invalids  require  a 
temperature  of  from  70°  to  75°  Fahrenheit  when  bath- 
ing. A  gas  stove  alone,  therefore,  as  a  rule,  proves 
insufficient  for  warming  an  exposed  bathroom. 


270 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


271 


272  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  usual  means  of  warming  the  apartment  are  the 
hot  air  register  from  the  cellar  furnace,  or  else  steam 
or  hot  water  radiators  placed  in  the  apartment.  In- 
side bathrooms  are,  of  course,  easier  to  heat  than 
those  located  in  an  extension,  which  are  particularly 
difficult  to  keep  warm  where  the  extension  faces  the 
north  or  northwest. 

In  addition  to  the  above  means  of  heating,  a  cheer- 
ful and  cozy  open  fireplace,  with  gas  log  or  other  form 
of  gas  fire,  is  sometimes  provided,  and  where  this  is 
done  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  even  a  gas  fire 
requires  a  flue  for  the  removal  of  the  gases  of  com- 
bustion. Nothing  can  be  more  attractive  than  a 
glowing  open  fire  in  a  bathroom,  which  precludes  all 
danger  of  catching  cold  during  and  after  the  bath. 

In  a  heated  bathroom  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
pipes  or  traps  freezing,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  supply  pipes  should  be  kept  away 
from  outside  walls,  and  that  pipes  which  are  neces- 
sarily exposed  need  special  protection  with  some  non- 
conducting material. 

VENTILATION. — The  popular  belief  that  an  outside 
window  in  a  bathroom  constitutes  sufficient  ventila- 
tion for  the  apartment  is  decidedly  a  mistake.  In 
summer  time  the  open  window  may  answer  this  pur- 
pose— not  so  in  winter.  It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation,  and  one  which  anybody  can  readily 
verify,  that  when  a  window  is  opened  to  ventilate  a 
bathroom  or  water  closet  apartment,  the  odor  from 
the  water  closet  is  sometimes  driven  directly  into  the 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  273 

interior  of  the  house,  this  being  caused  by  the  cold 
and  heavy  air  from  the  outside  rushing  into  the  room 
and  forcing  the  foul  air  toward  the  inside  of  the  house 
instead  of  permitting  it  to  escape  through  the  window. 

"  A  bathroom,"  to  quote  Mr.  E.  C.  Gardner,  the 
well-known  architect  and  author,  "  should  indeed 
have  an  outside  window  if  possible,  but  it  is  not  reli- 
able as  a  means  of  ventilation,  for  when  the  wind 
blows  strongly  against  it,  the  draft  through  the  door 
from  the  bathroom  to  the  hall  or  adjoining  chamber 
is  sure  to  set  into  the  house  and  away  from  the  win- 
dow." 

An  outside  window  at  plumbing  fixtures,  and  par- 
ticularly at  water  closets,  is  desirable  and  useful  for 
giving  light.  But  in  order  to  obtain  efficient  ventila- 
tion, other  means  are  more  suitable  and  more  positive 
in  action  than  a  window. 

Each  water  closet  and  bath  apartment  should, 
therefore,  be  provided  with  special  ventilating  flues 
for  the  removal  of  the  foul  air,  and  means  should  be 
included  to  insure  a  positive  upward  draught  in  such 
flues.  The  ventilation  of  toilet  rooms  should  be  in- 
cluded in  considering  the  schemes  for  ventilating  a 
house.  It  is  likewise  important  that  the  ventilating 
flues  or  shafts  for  water  closet  or  bath  apartments 
should  have  a  stronger  draught  than  other  flues  in 
the  house  ;  for  otherwise  it  will  happen  that  the  move- 
ment of  air,  induced  by  the  system  of  ventilation, 
will  be  from  the  bathroom  toward  the  house,  which 
would,  of  course,  be  very  undesirable. 


2/4  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

While  bathrooms  and  water  closet  apartments 
should  be  well  ventilated,  yet  there  should  be  no 
draught,  for  nothing  is  more  liable  to  induce  a  bad 
cold  than  to  have  a  current  of  cold  air  strike  the  wet 
body  of  a  person  just  emerging  from  the  bath. 

LIGHTING. — A  sunny  exposure  and  an  outside  win- 
dow are  always  desirable  for  a  bathroom.  In  this 
particular  point  extension  bathrooms  are  superior  to 
inside  rooms  with  light  borrowed  from  a  light  shaft 
and  to  bathrooms  in  rear  hall  rooms,  for  it  is  gener- 
ally feasible  to  provide  windows  on  two  sides  of  an 
extension  bathroom. 

The  light  obtained  from  inside  shafts  is  quite  poor 
on  the  lower  floors  of  a  high  building,  except  where 
the  light  shaft  is  made  of  unusually  large  dimensions. 

Artificial  light,  either  gas  or  electric  light,  should 
always  be  provided  in  bathrooms  and  in  water  closet 
apartments.  In  a  water  closet  ample  light  insures 
the  cleanly  use  and  maintenance  of  the  fixture.  The 
daylight  from  a  window  should  for  like  reasons  fall 
on  the  seat  and  on  the  water  closet  apparatus. 

Gas  burners  in  water  closets  may  with  advantage 
be  so  arranged  as  not  only  to  light  the  apartment, 
but  also  to  assist  in  creating  a  constant  upward  and 
outward  draught  in  the  ventilating  flue. 

SOUND. — The  walls  and  floors  of  bathrooms  and 
water  closet  apartments  must  be  made  proof  against 
any  transmission  of  sound.  This  is  a  matter  of  much 
importance  and  one  to  which  more  attention  should 
be  given  in  house  building  than  is  usually  the  case 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  2/5 

The  hollow  wooden  floors  upon  which  the  water 
closet  is  often  set  act  like  a  sounding  board,  and  in 
some  houses  announce  the  fact  that  the  closet  is 
being  flushed  to  the  entire  household.  Marble  plat- 
forms under  water  closets  act  in  a  similar  manner, 
except  where  they  are  placed  on  a  proper  thick  deaf- 
ening. 

The  walls  and  partitions  of  a  bath  apartment  can 
be  deadened  against  sound  by  filling  the  hollow 
spaces  with  mineral  wool,  felting  or  otherwise.  The 
ball-cocks  of  water  closet  cisterns  should  be  provided 
with  so  called  "hush  pipes,"  which  render  the  incom- 
ing supply  of  water  more  noiseless  in  filling  the  cis- 
tern. In  selecting  the  water  closet  apparatus  prefer- 
ence should  be  given,  all  other  things  being  equal,  to 
the  one  which  is  the  least  noisy  in  operation. 

WALLS  AND  FLOORS. — Floors,  \valls  and  ceilings  of 
bathrooms  should  be  made  as  nearly  as  possible 
waterproof,  for  there  is  always  more  or  less  destruc- 
tive vapor  of  steam  in  a  bathroom,  and  some  water 
is  likely  to  be  spilled  on  the  floor  and  against  the 
walls  when  a  bath  or  shower  is  taken.  In  a  bathroom 
all  superfluous  woodwork  should  be  carefully  avoided. 
The  numerous  joints  of  wood  wainscoting  form  har- 
boring places  for  Croton  bugs  and  beetles,  especially 
near  the  hot  water  pipes,  and  even  the  best  filled 
woodwork  absorbs  and  retains  moisture,  while  var- 
nished surfaces  are  readily  attacked  and  their  good 
appearance  quickly  destroyed  by  the  alkalies  of  the 
bath  soap. 


276  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Floor  and  wall  surfaces  about  plumbing  fixtures 
should,  therefore,  be  rendered  non-absorbent,  wash- 
able and  easily  cleaned.  Absolute  imperviousness 
may  be  secured  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

The  floor  should  be  made  practically  water-tight, 
but  it  is  also  desirable  that  it  should  be  neither  cold 
to  the  feet  nor  slippery.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
reconcile  these,  to  a  certain  extent,  conflicting  require- 
ments. In  plain  bathrooms,  of  houses  of  moderate 
cost,  the  floor  may  consist  of  narrow  strips  of  wood, 
the  joints  being  carefully  laid  with  white  lead,  and 
waterproof  paper  being  used  between  the  upper  and 
lower  floors.  Such  floors  may  be  covered  with  lin- 
oleum. Carpets  are  decidedly  out  of  place  in  a  bath 
or  water  closet  room,  for  dirt,  dust  or  filth  may  accu- 
mulate in  or  under  them,  and  they  are  not  taken  up 
sufficiently  often  and  cleaned.  In  the  more  expen- 
sive bathrooms  the  floor  is  sometimes  a  hardwood  or 
parquet  floor,  and  is  covered  with  one  or  several  loose 
rugs.  Tiled  and  marble  mosaic  floors  are  quite  often 
adopted.  If  tiling  is  to  be  used,  I  prefer  the  small 
unglazed  or  vitrified,  square,  hexagonal  or  octagonal 
tiles,  for  the  glazed  tiles  render  a  floor  extremely  slip- 
pery and  are  easily  scratched  by  the  shoes.  A  mar- 
ble mosaic  floor  looks  very  well  in  large  public  toilet 
rooms,  but  in  private  bathrooms  a  more  tasty  com- 
bination consists  in  the  use  of  marble  platforms  under 
plumbing  fixtures,  and  of  vitrified  white  tiles  with  or 
without  pattern  and  border,  for  the  rest  of  the  floor 
in  the  room.  Sometimes  large  squares  of  marble 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  277 

tiles  are  used,  or  else  the  floor  is  cemented  or 
asphalted,  though  this  arrangement  is  more  suitable 
for  buildings  other  than  dwelling  houses. 

On  the  whole,  I  consider  the  nicest  and  most  sen- 
sible combination  of  all  for  a  private  bathroom,  to  be 
a  hardwood  or  parquet  floor,  covered  with  rugs,  with 
marble  slabs  placed  under  the  fixtures. 

The  wall  surfaces  should  also  be  made  impervious 
to  moisture,  particularly  immediately  about  the 
plumbing  fixtures.  Even  in  inexpensive  houses  I 
should  advise  discarding  wooden  wainscoting  and 
using  instead  some  hard  non-absorbent  material.  A 
good  finish  for  plain  houses  may  be  obtained  by 
simply  cementing  the  walls,  or  else  the  walls  may  be 
plastered  and  then  oil-painted,  the  paint  being  either 
smooth  or  having  stippled  surfaces.  Glazed  or  var- 
nished enamel  or  tile  paper  is  also  obtainable,  which 
can  be  washed  and  which  forms  a  good  wall  surface, 
not  easily  destroyed  by  the  watery  vapor  of  the  apart- 
ment. Very  often  the  walls  are  covered  with  hard 
plaster,  such  as  Adamantine  or  rock  plaster,  which 
can  be  laid  out  in  squares  or  in  oblong  patterns  in 
imitation  of  tiles,  and  which  looks  very  well  and  at- 
tractive when  painted  with  special  white  bath  enamel. 
More  elaborate  apartments  have  the  walls  wainscoted 
with  large  marble  slabs  or  else  covered  with  glazed 
tiles,  either  white  or  in  different  colors  or  patterns. 
Wherever  the  walls  of  a  bathroom  are  tiled  up  to  a 
certain  height  from  the  floor  it  is  objectionable,  from 
a  decorative  point  of  view,  to  finish  the  upper  part 


278  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

of  the  walls  in  glazed  wall  paper  in  imitation  of 
tiling,  and  plain  oil-painted  walls  are  in  such  a  case 
much  to  be  preferred. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  BATHROOM  FIXTURES. — In  laying 
out  the  plan  for  a  bathroom,  due  regard  should  be 
paid  to  the  most  advantageous  shape  and  dimensions 
of  the  room.  Ample  space  should  be  provided  for 
the  fixtures  in  order  not  to  crowd  these  too  much. 
As  a  rule,  an  oblong-shaped  bathroom  is  preferable  to 
a  square  room,  for  it  is  always  better  to  put  all  the 
fixtures  on  one  side  of  the  room  in  a  row.  Scatter- 
ing the  fixtures  along  different  walls  or  on  opposite 
sides  generally  means  an  increased  expense  in  the 
waste,  supply  and  vent  pipe  system,  particularly 
when  there  is  more  than  one  door  in  the  bathroom. 
A  bathroom  having  two  or  even  three  entrance  doors 
is  always  much  more  difficult  to  arrange  than  one 
with  only  one  door. 

Wherever  a  bathroom  contains  a  water  closet,  this 
should  invariably  be  placed  nearest  to  the  soil  pipe  ; 
or  vice  versa,  the  main  soil  pipe  must  be  located  at 
or  near  the  water  closet.  The  reason  for  such 
arrangement  is  that  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  branch 
waste  pipe  from  this  fixture  to  the  soil  pipe  as  short 
and  direct  as  practicable.  Whether  the  bathtub  or 
the  lavatory  should  stand  next  to  the  water  closet, 
depends  somewhat  upon  the  manner  of  running  the 
branch  wastes.  Where  these  are  carried  exposed  at 
the  ceiling  underneath  the  bathroom  (generally,  in 
the  case  of  extension  bathrooms,  a  dining  room  pan- 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  279 

try),  it  is  better  to  put  the  wash  basin  next  to  the 
water  closet  ;  when  the  waste  cannot  be  so  exposed, 
the  foot  end  of  the  tub  should  adjoin  the  water  closet 
and  the  waste  from  the  wash  basin  may  be  carried 
above  the  bathroom  floor,  along-  .the  wall,  until  it 
joins  the  soil  pipe,  or  a  Y-branch  on  the  waste  pipe 
from  the  water  closet. 

Regarding-  the  space  occupied  by  the  fixtures,  the 
water  closet  requires,  to  be  comfortable,  at  least  two 
feet  six  inches  in  width,  though  it  can  be  set  in  less 
space  ;  the  length  of  bathtubs  varies  from  four  feet 
to  six  feet  six  inches,  and  may  be  said  to  average  five 
feet  six  inches  ;  a  washstand,  to  be  serviceable  in  use, 
should  not  be  less  than  two  feet  six  inches  in  width, 
though  larger  sizes  are  often  fitted  up.  The  depth, 
from  the  wall  forward,  occupied  by  the  fixtures,  is 
about  as  follows  :  For  a  water  closet,  from  two  feet 
to  two  feet  three  inches  ;  for  a  lavatory,  one  foot  ten 
inches  to  two  feet  two  inches,  and  for  bathtubs  the 
dimension  varies  according  to  their  shape  and  mate- 
rial, the  copper  tub  taking  the  least  space,  viz.:  about 
two  feet ;  the  enameled  iron  tubs  requiring  from  two 
feet  three  inches  to  two  feet  eight  inches  in  depth,  not 
counting  the  space  between  the  bathtub  rim  and  the 
wall  wainscoting  ;  and  all-porcelain  tubs  requiring 
from  two  feet  six  inches  to  three  feet  one  inch  in  width. 

I  shall  not  discuss  here  the  merits  and  demerits  of 
the  various  water  closet  fixtures,  and  refer  the  reader 
to  previous  chapters  in  this  book.* 


*  See  also  W.  P.  Gerhard,    "House    Drainage    and    Sanitary    Plumbing,"    yth 
Edition,    1898. 


280  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

For  a  well-appointed  modern  bathroom  either  a 
siphon-jet  closet,  a  siphon  closet  or  a  wash-down 
closet  should  be  chosen.  For  water  closets  in  sepa- 
rate apartments  we  may  add  to  the  list  the  flushing" 
rim  short  hopper  closet,  and  for  water  closets  in  situa- 
tions exposed  to  freezing  (servants'  yard  closets)  the 
flushing  rim  long  hopper  closet.  All-porcelain  fixtures 
only  should  be  selected  for  use  in  dwelling  houses. 
Each  closet  should  have  a  flushing  cistern  of  suitable 
capacity,  and  preferably  one  large  enough  to  give  two 
successive  flushes.  Iron  cisterns  are  objectionable, 
because  the  iron  rust  is  apt  to  stain  the  porcelain 
bowl,  and  because  the  metal  condenses  the  steam  or 
vapor  and  causes  annoying  dripping  of  water.  On 
many  accounts  the  copper-lined  wooden  cisterns  are 
preferable.  The  outside  finish  of  these  flushing  tanks 
may  be  varied  according  to  the  character  of  the  apart- 
ment. For  the  plainest  work  stained  or  painted 
wood  finish  is  adopted.  In  the  better  class  of  bath- 
rooms the  cisterns  are  always  finished  in  polished 
hardwood  to  correspond  to  the  trim  of  the  room. 
Panels  and  mouldings  are  often  used  for  embellish- 
ment of  the  cisterns,  but  I  prefer  a  round-cornered 
tank  with  plain  cabinet-finished  surface.  Fancy 
metal  cistern  trimmings,  linspar  and  other  raised  and 
gilt  or  colored  decorations  are,  to  my  mind,  in  very 
poor  taste.  The  encasing  of  flushing  cisterns  with 
marble  is  more  adapted  for  toilet  rooms  in  public 
buildings.  In  England  earthen  or  porcelain  tanks, 
which  may  be  plain  or  decorated,  have  come  into  use, 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  28l 

the  object  apparently  being  to  avoid  all  woodwork  in 
the  bathroom  ;  similar  flushing  cisterns  are  now  to  be 
obtained  here. 

As  a  rule,  the  flushing  cistern  is  placed  directly 
over  the  water  closet  at  a  sufficient  height  to  obtain 
a  vigorous  flushing  and  scouring  of  the  bowl  and 
trap.  In  exceptional  cases,  where  there  is  a  closet 
behind  the  water  closet,  the  cistern  is  put  here,  so  as 
to  be  entirely  out  of  sight.  In  this  case  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  overflow  of  the  cistern  (if  it 
leads,  as  it  usually  does,  through  the  flush  pipe  into 
the  closet  bowl)  is  closed  or  sealed,  whether  by  a 
flap-valve  with  ball  float  or  by  an  annular  siphon, 
otherwise  the  odors  from  the  use  of  the  closet  are 
carried  by  the  flush  pipe  into  the  closet  where  the 
cistern  is  placed. 

For  private  houses  the  discharge  of  the  cistern  is 
nearly  always  effected  by  a  chain  and  pull  arrange- 
ment. Seat  action,  door  attachments  and  automatic 
flushing  are  not  suitable  and  not  needed  in  private 
houses.  Where  the  cistern  is  not  directly  over  the 
closet  the  chain  must  be  carried  over  easy-running 
pulleys.  A  bell  handle  or  else  a  push  button  arrange- 
ment are  occasionally  substituted  for  the  pull  handle. 

At  the  water  closet  all  superfluous  woodwork  must 
be  studiously  avoided.  The  open  round,  square  or 
oval  cabinet-finished  seat  is  really  the  only  woodwork 
required.  Even  the  usual  cover  or  lid  is  unnecessary, 
except  in  small  bathrooms  where  the  space  for  a  chair 
is  wanting.  For  water  closets  in  separate  apart- 


282  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ments  the  cover  to  the  seat  is  but  a  relic  of  bygone 
times,  and  its  use  is  much  to  be  deprecated.  Care- 
ful attention  should  be  given  to  placing  the  seat  in  a 
proper  position  over  the  bowl. 

Urinals  should  never  be  tolerated  in  private  houses, 
for  here  the  water  closet  answers  the  purpose  equally 
as  well  or  even  better.  I  do  not  remember  ever  hav- 
ing found  a  urinal  in  even  the  most  expensive  private 
residences  examined  by  me,  which  was  not  objection- 
able on  account  of  both  odor  and  general  appearance. 

I  shall  not  describe  the  various  types  of  fixtures 
serving  for  the  daily  bath.  Whatever  the  fixture  may 
be — whether  a  full  bathtub,  or  a  sitz  bath,  foot  bath, 
bidet,  needle  bath,  douche  or  shower — it  always  re- 
quires a  complete  system  of  hot  and  cold  water  sup- 
ply pipes,  of  waste  and  overflow  pipes,  a  good  trap 
and  (wherever  the  trap  is  such  as  to  be  liable  to 
siphonage)  a  trap  vent  pipe  or  anti-siphon  vent  at- 
tachment ;  occasionally  safety  pans  or  safes  are  pro- 
vided, in  particular  where  the  bath  is  arranged 
directly  over  an  elaborately  decorated  ceiling,  and 
special  disconnected  safe  waste  pipes  are  sometimes 
carried  from  the  safes  to  the  lowest  part  of  the 
house. 

All  bathing  appliances,  as  well  as  lavatories,  should 
be  provided  with  an  abundant  supply  of  both  cold 
and  hot  water.  A  bathtub  fitted  up  with  only  a  cold 
water  faucet,  and  necessitating  the  carrying  upstairs 
of  all  hot  water,  cannot  be  considered  as  a  "  modern 
convenience,"  and  will  not  be  of  much  use.  Where 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  283 

the  hot  water  boiler  does  not  furnish  a  sufficient 
amount  of  hot  water,  or  where  it  is  desired  to  save 
the  expense  of  carrying  hot  water  pipes  to  a  bath- 
room on  the  attic  floor  for  servants,  hot  water  may 
be  readily  obtained  at  the  fixture  by  fitting  up  one  of 
the  instantaneous  gas  water  heaters  now  sold  in  the 
market.  Where  these  are  employed  it  is,  however, 
necessary  to  make  provision  for  a  flue  connection  to 
the  heating  appliance. 

Lavatories  are  so  numerous  in  design  and  varied  in 
their  fittings  that  I  cannot  undertake  to  discuss  any  of 
their  details.  To  my  mind  nothing  can  be  more 
objectionable  in  a  fixture  intended  for  the  ablution  of 
the  hands  and  the  face  than  the  secret  waste  and 
overflow  valve,  which  is  just  now  the  favorite  fixture 
of  architects  and  householders.  From  a  sanitary 
point  of  view  it  is  necessary  that  the  stopper,  plug 
or  valve  inserted  to  make  the  basin  hold  water  should 
be  in  plain  sight  and  that  it  should  close  the  outlet 
of  the  bowl  directly  at  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  not 
at  some  distance  away.  The  stand  pipe  overflow 
basin,  the  basin  with  waste  plug  directly  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bowl,  operated  by  some  mechanism  out- 
side of  the  bowl,  and  the  siphon  basin,  with  rubber 
plug  and  rubber  cablet  in  place  of  the  link  chain,  are 
the  only  kinds  which  are  clean  or  can  be  readily  kept 
clean.  The  latter  form  of  bowl  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  having  an  overflow  flushed  at  each  dis- 
charge of  the  basin  and  trapped  when  the  bowl  is 
filled. 


284  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Numerous  appurtenances  designed  for  rendering" 
the  equipment  of  a  bathroom  still  more  complete  and 
convenient  are  now  obtainable,  such  as  soap  jars, 
cups  or  boxes,  sponge  racks  and  holders,  towel  racks 
and  shelves,  brush  and  tumbler  holders,  hooks  for 
bath  robes,  devices  for  holding  toilet  paper,  beveled 
mirrors,  etc.,  but  of  these  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak. 

EXPOSED  AND  ACCESSIBLE  PLUMBING  WORK. — There 
are  still  in  every  city  and  town  numerous  old  houses 
where  all  plumbing  work  is  completely  boxed  in  with 
woodwork,  the  enclosed  spaces  being  utilized  for  cup- 
boards, drawers  and  closets  for  storage  of  worn-out 
household  articles.  All  wooden  casings  surrounding 
sinks,  washstands,  bathtubs  and  water  closets  form 
convenient  receptacles  and  gathering  places  for  dust, 
dirt  and  concealed  spillage  of  liquids.  Thus  it  comes 
that  the  many  crevices,  nooks  and  hidden  corners  of 
household  conveniences  simply  constitute  what  have 
been  aptly  termed  "artful  contrived  traps  for  catch- 
ing and  hiding  filth."  I  cannot  too  strongly  urge  the 
necessity  of  avoiding  every  opportunity  for  such 
concealment  of  dirt,  for  untidiness,  stuffiness  and 
unhealthiness  of  the  room,  or  often  of  the  whole 
house,  are  the  unavoidable  results. 

Plumbing  fixtures  should  be  divested  of  all  unneces- 
sary enclosures.  Instead  of  forming  inviting  places 
for  dust  and  dirt  and  filth  to  accumulate  under,  they 
should  be  left,  exposed  to  the  eyes  of  the  watchful 
housewife  and  open  to  the  beneficial  influence  of  air, 
sunlight  and  the  housemaid's  dust  broom.  The  time 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  285 

is,  fortunately,  past  when  architects,  builders  and 
even  house  owners  would  shrug  their  shoulders  about 
such  advice.  The  modern  principle  of  "  non-conceal- 
ment "  has  at  last  been  recognized  as  being  the  only 
correct  method  of  finishing  the  sanitary  appliances  of 
a  dwelling.  Comfort  and  convenience  of  arrange- 
ment have  not  suffered  thereby.  On  the  contrary, 
the  increased  facilities  afforded  for  maintenance  of 
cleanliness  are  beginning  to  be  greatly  and  univer- 
sally appreciated.  With  the  fixtures  entirely  exposed 
and  all  piping  kept  in  plain  sight,  it  is  much  easier 
now-a-days  to  get  access  to  the  pipes  and  fixtures  in 
order  to  keep  them  clean  or  to  repair  slight  leaks  or 
imperfections. 

A  perfectly  healthful  bathroom  requires,  of  course, 
a  good  and  safe  arrangement  of  the  plumbing  sys- 
tem, of  the  traps,  vents,  wastes  and  soil  pipes.  De- 
fective and  inferior  work,  trashy  materials,  fittings  of 
the  cheapest  possible  character  cannot  for  a  moment, 
be  tolerated.  Numerous  well-appointed  sanitary 
bathrooms  of  modern  houses  point  conclusively  to 
the  fact  that  the  ills,  so  often  associated  with  bad 
drainage  and  bad  ventilation,  with  uncleanliness  or 
foulness,  are  readily  avoidable  by  the  use  of  first-class 
materials,  sanitary  fixtures  and  by  careful  workman- 
ship. 

I  have  referred  so  far  largely  to  the  fitting  up  of 
bath  and  water  closet  apartments  in  private  resi- 
dences. The  suggestions  made  apply  equally  to 
smaller  city  dwelling  houses,  to  apartment  houses 


286  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  to  suburban  and  country  houses,  with  the  pos- 
sible difference  that  in  these  the  whole  arrangement 
will  be  more  simple  and  less  elaborate  in  character. 
I  now  propose  discussing  briefly  the  application,  with 
suitable  modifications,  of  the  foregoing  suggestions 
to  other  classes  of  buildings. 
Tenement  Houses.* 

Water  closet  accommodations  in  rear  yards  for  the 
joint  use  of  the  dwellers  in  tenement  houses  are  not 
to  be  commended.  It  is  very  much  better  to  provide 
these  fixtures  on  each  of  the  several  floors  of  a  tene- 
ment house.  I  would  go  even  a  step  farther  and  sug- 
gest, as  very  desirable,  that  each  family  should  have 
a  separate  water  closet,  for  thus  only  can  cleanliness 
and  a  decent  maintenance  of  the  fixture  and  its  sur- 
roundings be  secured.  Where,  as  is  now  usual,  sev- 
eral families  use  the  same  water  closet,  there  is  a 
divided  responsibility  regarding  the  maintenance  of 
the  compartment  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  it  is 
well  known  that  divided  responsibility  generally  sig- 
nifies no  responsibility  at  all. 

Elsewheref  in  this  work  I  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  one  seldom  finds  bathtubs  fitted  up  in  tenement 
houses.  Some  well-meaning  landlords  are  said  to 
have  tried  the  experiment  of  fitting  up  bathtubs  in 
tenement  houses,  but  they  soon  grew  disheartened  at 
finding  the  tub  used  as  a  storage  place  for  food,  or 
even  as  a  depository  for  coal,  ashes,  etc.  More  re- 


*  See  also  chapter  on  "  Sanitary  Drainage  of  Tenement  Houses/' 
f  See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on  "  Bathing  and  Different  Forms  of  Baths." 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  287 

cently,  fixtures  have  been  gotten  up  for  use  in  tene- 
ments which  constitute  a  combined  wash  and  bath- 
tub, some  made  in  wood  having-  a  removable  parti- 
tion between  the  two  washtubs,  while  others  made  in 
artificial  stoneware  have  a  small  washtub,  and  adjoin- 
ing- the  same  a  large  compartment  suitable  for  wash- 
ing as  well  as  for  bathing.  I  incline  to  the  belief 
that  a  much  better  plan  would  be  to  abolish  entirely 
the  tub  and  to  substitute  for  the  same  a  simple  spray 
or  rain  bath.  This  could  be  fitted  up  in  the  basement 
of  the  tenement,  and  should  be  a  moderately  large 
compartment  with  dressing  room,  the  whole  fitted 
with  door  and  lock,  the  key  of  which  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  janitor.  To  each  family  a  certain 
day  in  the  week  could  be  assigned  for  bathing,  and 
the  dwellers  of  the  tenements  would  in  this  way 
secure  what  should  prove  of  immense  benefit  to  the 
working  classes — a  weekly  warm  bath,  in  clean  water, 
amidst  pure  surroundings. 
Hotels. 

The  plumbing  work  in  modern  hotel  buildings  is 
always  extensive  and  elaborate  in  character.  On  the 
bedroom  floors  provision  must  be  made  for  private 
and  public  bathrooms,  the  former  attached  to  bed- 
room suites  and  luxuriously  fitted  up  in  the  same  way 
as  described  in  the  preceding  pages.  There  should 
also  be  on  each  floor  a  ladies'  retiring  room,  contain- 
ing several  water  closets  and  wash  basins.  Such 
rooms  should  be  conveniently  located,  generally  at 
the  end  of  a  hall  or  corridor  ;  they  must  be  easily 


288  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

found,  yet  at  the  same  time  not  be  too  conspicuous. 
The  main  toilet  room  for  male  hotel  guests  is  located 
either  on  the  ground  floor  or  more  often  in  the  base- 
ment, and  much  attention  should  be  bestowed  upon 
its  sanitary  arrangements  and  fittings.  Where  the 
necessary  space  is  available,  I  should  always  advise 
having  the  water  closets  and  urinals  in  one  apartment 
and  placing  the  lavatories  in  a  separate  adjoining 
room.  This  separation  is  desirable  in  hotels  as  much 
as  is  in  private  houses  the  separation  of  the  bath  from 
the  water  closet.  Fig.  79  illustrates  in  plan  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  a  guests'  toilet  room  for  a  large 
hotel,  the  lavatory  being  separated  from  the  water 
closets. 

The  number  of  fixtures  required  in  the  main  guests' 
toilet  room  depends  upon  the  size  and  character  of 
the  hotel,  but  a  generous  number  should  be  provided 
if  possible,  in  order  to  prevent  crowding.  The 
arrangement  of  the  water  closets  varies  somewhat, 
but  in  all  cases  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  woodwork  in 
such  a  toilet  room.  The  water  closet  stalls  are,  there- 
fore, in  the  best  buildings  of  this  class,  fitted  up 
entirely  in  white  Italian  or  gray  Knoxville  marble. 
Each  compartment  should  be  from  2\  to  three  feet 
wide  and  4^  to  five  feet  deep.  The  partitions  should 
reach  to  a  height  of  seven  feet,  or  seven  feet  six 
inches  from  the  floor,  and  should  be  either  cut  out  at 
the  floor  or  raised  about  ten  inches  and  supported  on 
nickel  plated  brass  legs.  This  facilitates  the  cleaning 
of  the  tiled  or  marble  floor.  Each  compartment 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


289 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

should  have  a  light  flap  door,  and  on  sanitary  grounds 
I  prefer  the  arrangement  of  reverse  springs,  which 
cause  the  door  to  stand  open  except  when  the  water 
closet  seat  is  occupied.  If  so  arranged  the  whole  in- 
terior of  the  compartment  is  usually  exposed,  and 
greater  cleanliness  is  thus  secured.  The  water  closet 
apparatus  should  be  of  the  best  and  most  approved 
kind,  either  a  pedestal  short  hopper,  a  wash-down 
closet  or  a  siphon  closet.  The  fixtures  should  be  of 
white  porcelain  and  all  piping  and  trimmings  of 
polished  or  plated  brass.  The  water  closet  cisterns 
should  be  of  wood,  lined  with  copper,  as  iron  cisterns 
stain  the  bowl  with  rust. 

In  work  of  elaborate  character  all  cisterns  are  cased 
up  in  marble.  The  flush  is  either  automatic  by  means 
of  intermittently  discharging  flush  tanks,  or  it  is  oper- 
ated by  seat  or  by  door  action,  though  both  of  the 
latter  arrangements  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 
The  simplest  and  undoubtedly  best  arrangement  is 
the  chain  and  pull  flush,  operated  by  the  user  of  the 
closet.  A  novel  and  good  arrangement  consists  of  a 
combination  flushing  tank  having  two  compartments, 
one  fitted  with  an  automatic  intermittent  siphon, 
while  the  other  compartment  is  emptied  by  means  of 
of  the  usual  pull  arrangement.  While  this  may  re- 
quire a  somewhat  larger  amount  of  water,  it  secures 
the  proper  flushing  of  the  closet  and  maintains  at  all 
times  in  the  bowl  and  trap  a  water  seal  which  is  filled 
with  clean  wrater. 

Regarding  the  urinals,  the  stalls  may  be  of  slate  or 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 

Alberene  stone,  but  more  often  they  are  of  marble. 
It  is  important  that  the  stalls  should  not  be  too  nar- 
row. I  consider  a  width  of  two  feet  three  inches 
from  centre  to  centre  as  the  least  to  be  given  to  a 
public  urinal.  It  is  also  important  that  the  urinal 
bowls  be  set  up  at  such  a  height  as  to  accommodate 
short  persons.  As  a  rule,  urinals  are  set  up  too  high 
(i.  e.t  from  twrenty-four  to  twenty-seven  inches  from 
the  floor).  Practical  experience  has  shown  that  a 
urinal  is  better  kept  and  dripping  on  the  floor  pre- 
vented by  setting  the  top  of  the  front  edge  of  the 
bowl  at  a  height  not  exceeding  twenty-two  inches 
from  the  floor  slab.  It  is  likewise  better  to  select  a 
plain  round  urinal  bowl  and  not  the  so-called  "  lipped  " 
pattern.  The  latter  form  of  bowl  was  introduced 
some  years  ago  with  the  view  of  preventing  the  floor 
from  becoming  wetted  and  stained  with  drippings, 
but  in  practice  it  is  found  that  the  projecting  lip 
causes  the  very  trouble  which  it  was  designed  to 
avoid,  because  for  fear  of  contagion  persons  uncon- 
sciously stand  further  away  from  the  fixture. 

The  marble  platforms  of  urinal  stalls  should  not  be 
provided  with  a  waste  outlet  and  drip  pipe,  as  has 
frequently  been  done  in  the  past.  I  have  found  it  a 
difficult  matter  to  educate  the  public  or  building  com- 
mittees to  appreciate  the  reason  for  this  recommenda- 
tion, which  is  that  urinal  safe  wastes  invariably 
become  very  foul  smelling.  There  is,  in  practice,  no 
difficulty  whatever  in  having  the  floor  mopped  up 
and  cleaned  at  frequent  intervals.  Proper  ventilation 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

for  the  large  toilet  room  is,  of  course,  very  essential, 
and  should  be  included  in  the  genera}  scheme  of  ven- 
tilation of  the  building. 

About  the  lavatory  arrangements  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  expand  further,  as  they  have  been  described 
heretofore.  The  general  rules  regarding  the  fitting 
up  of  a  single  washtand  apply,  of  course,  to  a  row  of 
many  basins  as  required  for  a  hotel  lavatory.  I 
should,  perhaps,  mention  that  it  is  necessary,  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  to  trap  each  basin  separately. 
Club  Houses. 

The  arrangement  of  toilet  and  bathrooms  for  club 
houses  presents  no  features  worthy  of  special  men- 
tion. All  such  buildings  require  to  be  fitted  up  with 
a  number  of  gentleman's  general  toilet  rooms,  near 
the  bowling  alleys,  near  the  billiard  room,  etc.  A 
lavatory  should  be  provided  on  the  dining  room  floor. 
Where  the  upper  floors  contain  bedrooms  for  club 
members,  it  is  usual  to  attach  a  complete  bathroom 
to  some  or  all  of  them.  In  clubs  devoted  to  athletic 
exercises  the  bathing  arrangements,  particularly  the 
shower,  needle  and  plain  spray  or  rain  baths — and 
sometimes  swimming  tanks — form  an  important  fea- 
ture. I  may  in  this  place  mention  that  building  com- 
mittees should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  even  per- 
fectly fitted  up  toilet  rooms  require  a  system  of 
ventilation,  and  inversely  that  even  perfectly  venti- 
lated toilet  rooms  require  good  and  sanitary  plumb- 
ing and  drainage.  The  one  requirement  is  entirely 
distinct  from  the  other,  but  both  are  equally  neces- 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  293 

sary.     This  remark  may  with  advantage  be  applied 
to  other  classes  of  buildings. 
Office  Buildings. 

Modern  office  buildings  abound  with  all  manner  of 
conveniences  and  comforts.  The  rental  of  offices  in 
the  better  class  of  structures  is  so  high  that  tenants 
have  a  right  to  expect  the  best  service  and  the  best 
of  everything  in  the  line  of  "  modern  improvements." 
It  is  usual,  therefore,  to  provide  these  buildings  with 
an  elaborate  and  costly  equipment  of  plumbing,  com- 
prising toilet  rooms  and  also  washstands  in  every 
office. 

Two  possible  arrangements  of  toilet  rooms  should 
be  considered.  In  one  system  a  single  large  general 
men's  toilet  room  is  provided,  located  either  in  the 
basement  or,  more  frequently,  on  the  top  floor  of  the 
building.  In  the  other  system  we  find  a  smaller 
men's  toilet  room  on  each  floor.  Both  systems  have 
their  advocates  and  champions.  As  a  rule,  owners 
or  agents  of  buildings  and  real  estate  men  generally 
favor  the  "  one  toilet  room  "  plan,  which  relegates  the 
toilets  to  the  top  of  the  building,  thus  saving  valuable 
renting  space  on  each  office  floor.  Architects,  sani- 
tary engineers  and  tenants  are  usually  in  favor  of  the 
opposite  plan,  advising  that  a  toilet  room  be  provided 
on  every  office  floor.  Doubtless  much  may  be  said 
in  favor  of  either  system.  The  writer,  who  has  given 
much  attention  and  thought  to  the  matter,  inclines 
strongly  to  the  opinion,  derived  from  practical  study 
and  observation  in  high  office  buildings,  that  it  is  a 


294  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

mistake  to  put  the  toilet  conveniences  for  men  and 
women  on  one  floor  (generally  the  top  floor)  only. 
The  elevator  service,  already  insufficient  in  many  in- 
stances, becomes  thereby  very  much  overtaxed. 
Then  there  is  also,  as  regards  the  office  tenants,  a 
very  appreciable  loss  of  time,  caused  by  compelling- 
clerks,  boys,  messengers,  typewriters,  etc.,  to  go  to 
the  top  floor.  Much  valuable  time  of  employes  may 
doubtless  be  saved  by  providing  smaller  toilets  on 
every  floor,  or  at  least  on  alternate  floors.  In  some 
office  buildings  we  find  only  the  ladies'  toilet  placed 
on  the  top  floor,  and  this  in  buildings  where  many 
women  are  employed,  is  equally  bad  and  undesirable. 

One  way,  perhaps,  toward  solving  the  difficulty 
would  be  to  have  on  each  floor  a  small  men's  public 
toilet  room  with  one  or  two  urinals  and  at  least  one 
washbasin,  and  a  similar  room  on  alternate  floors  for 
the  use  of  women,  and  containing  one  lavatory  and  a 
ladies'  urinette,  a  fixture  frequently  found  attached  to 
waiting  rooms  of  English  railroad  stations.  (An  in- 
cidental advantage  of  the  urinette  fixture  is  that  it 
may  be  connected  with  a  two  or  three-inch  waste  pipe 
stack  and  hence  does  not  require  a  large  four  or  five- 
inch  soil  pipe,  as  would  be  necessary  if  the  ladies' 
toilets  contained  water  closets).  With  these  con- 
veniences provided  for  the  use  of  the  offices,  it  may 
answer  to  place  the  larger  men's  and  women's  toilet 
rooms  with  water  closets  on  the  top  floor. 

If  toilet  rooms  are  provided  on  every  office  floor  for 
the  accommodation  of  tenants  and  their  customers  or 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  295 

clients,  the  room  should  contain  two  water  closets 
and  at  least  one  washbasin  and  one  urinal  for  every 
five  offices.  It  is  desirable  that  the  washbasin  should 
be  provided  with  both  hot  and  cold  water.  The 
ladies'  toilet  room  should,  in  addition  to  water  closets 
and  washbasins,  contain  a  white  porcelain  slop  sink, 
supplied  with  both  hot  and  cold  water  and  sometimes 
arranged  with  an  overhead  flushing  cistern.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  place  this  appliance  in  the  ladies'  toilet,  because, 
as  a  rule,  the  scrubbing-  of  offices  and  halls  is  done  by 
scrubbing  women  and  not  by  porters. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  building  is  to  have  one 
main  toilet  on  the  top  floor  containing  a  large  group 
of  fixtures,  the  total  number  of  water  closets,  urinals 
and  bowls  need  not  be  as  large  as  the  aggregate 
number  of  fixtures  where  they  are  distributed  on  all 
floors.  The  toilet  room  for  women  should  contain,  in 
proportion,  more  water  closets  than  that  for  man,  ex- 
cept where  ladies'  urinettes  are  provided  on  alternate 
floors  in  the  smaller  toilet  rooms,  as  recommended 
above. 

To  omit  a  washstand  in  the  public  toilet  rooms  of 
a  large  office  building  is  a  serious  error  in  judgment. 
This  mistake  has  been  made  in  several  of  the  recent 
"  sky-scrapers "  in  New  York  City.  Each  of  the 
numerous  offices  should  likewise  be  fitted  up  with  a 
washbasin,  which  may  have  either  a  cold  water 
faucet  or  both  Hot  and  cold  water. 

The  space  required  in  each  toilet  room  for  the 
plumbing  fixtures  is  about  as  follows:  For  each 


296  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

water  closet  compartment  a  space  two  feet  six  inches; 
to  three  feet  wide  and  four  feet  to  five  feet  deep  ;  for 
each  urinal  stall  a  space  two  feet  three  inches  wide  and 
two  feet  deep  ;  for  each  washbasin  a  space  two  feet  six 
inches  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  This  does  not  include 
the  space  required  by  persons  standing  at  the  wash- 
basin to  wash,  nor  space  required  for  access  to  the 
urinals  and  water  closets. 

I  strongly  favor  the  arrangement  of  water  closet 
doors  in  which  the  doors  open  in,  instead  of  out,  and 
stand  open  except  when  the  compartment  is  occupied, 
but  this  requires  a  depth  of  compartment  of  at  least 
4^  feet,  while  for  women  this  dimension  should  be 
five  feet. 

The  question  of  the  proper  material  for  water  closet 
partitions  is  one  difficult  to  deal  with.  The  great 
desideratum  is  facility  of  cleaning  the  partitions  and 
floors.  Neither  face  brick,  nor  common  or  enameled 
face  brick,  nor  large  glazed  tiles,  are  free  from  objec- 
tions. Slate  partitions  are  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  dark  color,  and  marble  partitions  are  very  ex- 
pensive and  to  a  certain  extent  absorbent. 

The  advantages  of  wooden  board  partitions  are 
their  lightness  and  cheapness  ;  the  chief  objections 
against  them  are  that  they  are  apt  to  warp  from  humid- 
ity, that  the  wood  is  absorbent  and  that  wooden  sur- 
faces offer  opportunities  for  indecent  scribbling.  Par- 
titions of  enameled  or  face  brick  occupy  too  much 
space,  and  besides  the  surface  is  somewhat  irregular,, 
there  are  too  many  joints  and  the  surface  is  not  readily 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  297 

cleaned,  Sometimes  brick  partitions  are  lined  with 
glazed  tiles,  but  in  addition  to  the  numerous  joints, 
which  easily  collect  dirt,  the  objection  exists  that  the 
tiles  are  apt  to  break  loose. 

Partitions  both  of  hardwood  and  of  marble  are 
much  in  use  in  modern  office  buildings.  I  am  in- 
clined to  believe  that  in  the  near  future  a  new  mate- 
rial will  be  more  generally  introduced.  This  is  ham- 
mered glass,  used  either  as  a  lining  of  a  partition  or 
wall,  or  preferably  standing  free  by  itself.  In  France, 
glass  partitions  were  advocated  and  introduced  some 
years  ago  by  a  sanitary  engineer,  Monsieur  Piet,  and 
the  system,  which  is  patented,  is  known  as  the  Piet 
&  Co.'s  System.  From  a  description  given  by  Mr. 
D'Esmenard  in  Le  Gtnie  Sanitaire,  I  learn  that  such 
glass  partitions,  manufactured  by  the  glass  works  of 
Saint  Gobain,  consist  of  sheets  of  opaque  rolled 
annealed  glass,  made  in  all  sizes  and  in  thicknesses 
varying  from  eleven  to  twenty  millimetres,  or  from 
one-half  to  three-fourth  inches. 

Such  glass  partitions  present  a  hard,  absolutely 
non-absorbent,  perfectly  smooth  surface  and  have  a 
very  pleasing  appearance.  There  are  no  joints  and 
the  partitions  are  perfectly  aseptic  and  readily 
cleaned.  The  construction  is  very  simple :  Two 
plates  of  glass  of  equal  size,  and  of  the  full  height 
and  depth  of  the  compartment  which  they  are  to 
enclose,  are  placed  in  an  iron  frame,  surrounding  them 
on  three  sides  and  holding  them  tightly  together 
The  bottom  of  the  partition,  which  is  raised  from  the 


2Q8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

floor,  rests  in  an  iron  frame  supported  by  ornamental 
legs.  The  two  glass  partitions  are  joined  back  to 
back,  a  metallic  mastic  or  cement  putty  holding  them 
together  and  at  the  same  time  rendering  the  glass 
quite  opaque. 

Such  glass  partitions  may,  of  course,  also  be  used 
for  urinal  stalls,  for  shower  and  spray  bath  compart- 
ments, for  backs  and  sides  of  slop  sinks,  etc.  They 
would  appear  to  be  useful  and  adapted  not  merely  to 
office  buildings,  but  also  for  the  plumbing  in  hospi- 
tals, schools,  railroad  stations,  factories,  etc. 

One  more  desirable  fixture  for  office  buildings  re- 
quires brief  mention  :  I  refer  to  an  engineer's  bath, 
consisting  preferably  of  a  spray  or  shower  bath  in 
place  of  the  common  tub,  placed  in  the  basement  or 
sub-basement  for  the  use  of  the  engineer  and  the  fire- 
men who  attend  to  the  boilers  and  power  plant  of 
office  buildings. 
Stores. 

Large  stores  require  a  very  complete  and  elaborate 
arrangement  of  toilet  rooms.  In  recent  buildings  of 
this  class  the  toilet  rooms  for  customers  are  fitted  up 
with  all  possible  conveniences  and  with  great  luxur- 
iousness  of  detail.  In  addition  to  these,  provision 
must  be  made  for  the  great  army  of  clerks  and  sales- 
women, for  workmen,  cash  boys,  for  the  head  clerks, 
department  managers  and  buyers,  and  for  the  mem- 
bers of  the  firm.  The  plumbing  details  are  generally 
similar  to  those  in  hotel  and  office  buildings.  Fig.  80 
illustrates  in  plan  the  general  arrangement  of  a  ladies' 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  299 


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Fig.  80.— Plan  of  a  ladies  'toilet  room,  with  lavatories,  in  a  large  department  store. 


3OO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

retiring  and  toilet  room  in  a  large  department  store. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lavatories  are  placed  in  an 
ante-room  separate  from  the  water  closets. 
Warehouses. 

The  plumbing  in  warehouses  is,  as  a  rule,  of  a  much 
simpler  character  than  that  in  stores,  but  whatever 
fixtures  are  provided  in  the  toilet  rooms  must  be 
of  a  very  strong,  durable  and  substantial  character  to 
withstand  rough  usage.  Separate  water  closet  con- 
veniences for  men  and  women  are  required  as  in  the 
case  of  factories. 
Factories.* 

The  water  closet  arrangements  in  factories  are 
sometimes  very  extensive,  this  depending  upon  the 
total  number  of  employes  of  both  sexes.  Here,  too, 
the  plumbing  should  be  durable  and  substantial, 
though  plain  in  character.  The  factory  inspection 
laws  of  many  States  now  wisely  require  that  entirely 
separate  toilet  rooms  for  male  and  female  operators 
be  provided,  also  that  the  closets  for  the  females  must 
not  adjoin  those  for  males,  but  must  have  separate 
approaches.  This  rule,  demanded  by  regards  for 
decency  and  humanity  alike,  has  until  recently  been 
quite  universally  violated. 

The  water  closet  fixtures  are  either  of  the  single 
type,  or  more  frequently  what  are  known  as  water 
closet  ranges,  troughs  or  latrines  are  used,  with  auto- 
matic flush.  These  answer,  where  the  water  is  not 

*  See  chapter  on  "  Sanitation  in  Factories  and  Workshops." 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  3OI 

used  too  sparingly,  every  purpose.  The  seats  should 
be  divided  off  by  slate  partitions,  which  should  be 
raised  from  the  floor,  and  need  not  be  carried  quite 
as  high  as  those  in  office  buildings  are.  Doors  may 
with  advantage  be  omitted,  this  being  desirable  to 
prevent  nuisances  and  a  misuse  of  the  fixtures.  The 
floor  of  the  room  must  be  made  water-tight  and  wash- 
able ;  an  asphalt  or  granolithic  floor  answers  the  pur- 
pose. All  unnecessary  woodwork  should  be  avoided, 
not  merely  in  the  partitions,  but  also  all  wooden 
wainscoting,  as  the  many  crevices  and  joints  are 
liable  to  accumulate  dirt  and  vermin.  The  urinals 
should  preferably  consist  of  long  enameled  iron 
troughs  with  automatic  flush. 

In  the  women's  toilet  rooms  provision  should  be 
made  for  ample  washrooms,  and  space  should  be  re- 
served for  dressing  rooms. 

Employes  in  factories  are  constantly  surrounded 
with  dust  and  dirt,  and  one  of  the  greatest  blessings 
to  workingmen  consists  in  the  establishment  of  plain 
factory  baths,  the  best  form  of  these  being  the  mod- 
ern "rain"  or  spray  bath.*  In  industrial  establish- 
ments where  poisonous  substances  are  handled  or 
manufactured,  baths  are  indispensable  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  health  of  the  workingmen.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  majority  of  factories  have  a 
power  plant  operated  by  steam,  hence  there  is  but  lit- 
tle difficulty  in  fitting  up  some  suitable  bathing  accom- 

*  See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on  "  Bathing  and  Different  Forms  of  Baths." 


3O2  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

modations.  Much  of  the  exhaust  steam,  now  use- 
lessly wasted,  could  be  utilized  for  cheaply  heating 
the  water  for  the  baths.  High  pressure  steam  is  not 
always  required,  for  exhaust  steam  will  do  the  work 
equally  well  and  in  this  way  the  warming  of  the 
water  costs  but  very  little.  The  firemen,  boiler  at- 
tendants and  the  engineer  need  the  bath  particularly 
on  account  of  the  coal  dust,  which  settles  in  their 
working  clothes,  but  all  workmen  would  derive  bene- 
fit from  bathing.  If  they  go  home  without  having 
had  the  bath,  the  dust  and  dirt  from  the  factory  is 
carried  on  their  bodies  and  clothing  to  the  house. 
The  latter  is  but  seldom,  if  ever,  provided  with  facili- 
ties for  taking  a  bath.  Not  only  would  the  workmen 
feel  clean  after  the  day's  work  is  over,  but  their 
health  would  be  better  preserved,  and  their  employers 
would  secure  better  returns  in  their  work. 

The  movement  for  factory  baths — not  unlike  that 
for  people's  baths  and  children's  school  baths — is 
making  rapid  strides,  and  we  hope  the  day  is  not  far 
off  when  every  large  manufacturing  establishment 
will  have  a  bath  house  attached  to  it. 

Theatres.* 

Even  in  theatre  buildings  the  plumbing  and  the 
toilet  room  conveniences  are  often  quite  extensive. 
For  the  use  of  the  audience,  retiring  rooms  must  be 
provided,  generally  two  for  each  gallery  or  tier,  one 
for  rrien,  the  other  for  women.  In  the  smaller  play- 


*  See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on  "  Theatre  Sanitation." 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    B-ATH    APARTMENTS.  303 

houses  it  is  sufficient  to  arrange  a  single  men's  toilet 
room  in  the  basement  near  the  smoking  room,  and  a 
ladies'  toilet  in  the  balcony  tier.  It  is  very  essential 
that  the  toilet  rooms  should  not  be  conspicuous, 
neither  must  their  location  be  indicated  by  the  noise 
of  the  water  closet  cisterns  or  by  any  disagreeable 
odor  emanating  from  the  apartment.  There  must  be 
perfect  sanitation  together  with  perfect  ventilation. 
The  fixtures  should  all  be  selected  and  arranged  with 
a  view  of  being  noiseless  in  operation. 

In  the  stage  house  one  or  several  toilet  rooms  should 
be  planned  for  the  stage  hands  and  supers,  having 
due  regard  to  the  entire  separation  of  the  sexes. 
Near  the  corridor  leading  from  the  single  dressing 
rooms  there  should  be  several  conveniences  (water 
closets,  urinals,  urinettes)  for  the  actors  and  actresses. 
All  sanitary  requirements  must  be  particularly  ob- 
served in  this  part  of  the  building,  as  here  defects  in 
plan  or  workmanship  are  apt  to  make  themselves  felt 
with  particular  severity.  Water  closets  should  never 
be  located  in  dark  corners  under  the  stage,  where 
their  use  and  maintenance  cannot  be  so  readily  con- 
trolled. 

It  is,  finally,  necessary  to  provide  washing  sinks 
for  the  use  of  the  supers  and  the  chorus,  and  each 
actor's  dressing  room  should  have  a  very  small  set 
wa&hstand  with  hot  and  cold  water  faucets. 

Fig.  8 1  is  an  illustration  of  the  left  half  of  an  upper 
floor  plan  of  a  modern  theatre,  showing  ladies'  and 
gentlemens'  toilet  rooms,  also  water  closet  accommo- 


304 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


Fig.  81.— Plan  of  balcony  floor  of  a  theatre,  showing  toilet  room  accommodations  for 
the  public  and  the  stage  performers. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  305 

dations  for  the  actors,  and  the  lavatories  in  each  of 
the  actors'  dressing  rooms. 
Churches  and  Synagogues. 

Church  buildings  require  very  few  plumbing  con- 
veniences, except  in  the  case  of  synagogues.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  on  certain  Jewish  holidays  the  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  remain  the  entire  day  in 
their  house  of  worship,  it  becomes  necessary  to  pro- 
vide ample  toilet  room  space.  Sometimes  this  em- 
braces separate  water  closet  rooms  with  lavatories  for 
men  and  women,  for  boys  and  girls.  It  is  also  usual 
to  provide  a  small  toilet  room  adjoining  the  minis- 
ter's or  rabbi's  study,  and  another  lavatory  near  the 
trustees'  room.  The  fitting  up  of  these  rooms  and 
sanitary  appliances  is  quite  similar  in  character  to  that 
of  other  public  or  semi-public  buildings,  and  calls  for 
no  special  comment. 
School  Houses.* 

The  first  question  of  importance  in  connection  with 
water  closets  for  schools  is  their  location ;  in  other 
words,  whether  interior  or  outdoor  water  closets  are 
to  be  preferred. 

The  old-fashioned  outdoor  yard  closets,  standing 
detached  and  at  some  distance  from  the  main  build- 
ing, do  not  merit  approval.  A  very  good  plan  con- 
sists in  placing  the  children's  toilet  rooms  in  a  sepa- 
rate side  wing,  or  better  still  in  a  detached  building 
of  either  one  or  several  stories,  connected  with  the 


*  See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on   "  School  Sanitation." 


306  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

school  house  by  means  of  a  covered  well-ventilated 
corridor.  This  plan  is  in  many  respects  superior  to 
the  plan  of  putting  the  toilet  rooms  in  the  basement 
of  the  school,  but  it  should  be  stated  that,  with  ample 
ventilation  and  with  a  careful  arrangement  of  the 
water  closets,  no  very  strong  objection  exists  to  a 
location  in  the  basement,  and  there  are  many,  whose 
judgment  is  certainly  entitled  to  consideration,  who 
prefer  this  plan. 

Others  prefer  arranging  the  toilet  rooms  for  boys 
and  girls  on  each  of  the  floors  of  the  school  house. 
This,  to  my  mind,  is  the  plan  having  the  least  merits 
of  all.  In  my  judgment,  only  the  teachers'  closets 
should  be  arranged  on  the  floors  above  the  basement, 
and  these  might  be  used  by  the  girls  of  the  higher 
classes. 

Regarding  the  number  of  water  closets  to  be  pro- 
vided, it  is  usual  to  allow  one  seat  to  about  fifteen 
girls  or  twenty  boys.  The  boys'  toilet  room,  should, 
in  addition  to  the  water  closets,  contain  a  suitable 
number  of  urinal  stalls. 

I  shall  not  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  relative 
merits  of  the  various  types  of  school  water  closets 
and  trough  closets.  An  automatic  flush  is  a  neces- 
sity, as  children  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  operate  the 
flush  after  the  use  of  the  fixture.  It  is  also  desirable 
to  put  up  the  water  closet  seats  at  various  heights  to 
accommodate  children  of  all  ages.  Trough  urinals 
for  the  boys  should  likewise  be  set  low. 

In  recent   years    many    forms   of   so-called    4<dry 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  307 

closets  "  have  been  advocated  for  use  in  schools,  and 
some  have  been  rather  extensively  advertised.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  look  upon  them  with  much  favor, 
and  in  my  judgment,  all  those  so-called  "  dry  sys- 
tems "  which  are  arranged  in  connection  with  the  ven- 
tilation of  the  school  rooms  are  unsanitary,  and  under 
circumstances,  positively  dangerous.  The  difficulties 
of  maintaining  a  constant  current  of  air  in  one  direc- 
tion are  very  great. 

Every  school  building  should  have  a  few  lavatories 
for  the  use  of  the  children.  It  is  preferable  not  to 
place  these  in  the  water  closet  rooms. 

Finally,  I  should  mention  that  it  is  a  very  desirable 
thing  to  have  every  public  school  provided  with  a  few 
spray  baths.  These  can  be  located  either  in  a  sepa- 
rate one-story  pavilion  or  else  in  the  basement  adjoin- 
ing the  children's  playrooms.  I  shall  refer  else- 
where to  the  growing  use  of  the  "  rain  bath  "  in  the 
public  schools  in  Germany.  Scarcely  any  school 
building  is  nowadays  erected  in  German  cities  with- 
out this  necessary  provision  for  the  health  and  clean- 
liness of  the  children,  many  of  whom  do  not  know  in 
their  homes  the  blessings  and  advantages  derived 
from  regular  bathing.  I  hope,  in  the  interest  of  the 
coming  generation  of  our  American  school  children, 
that  some  pen,  more  facile  and  powerful  than  my 
own,  will  make  a  strong  plea  to  our  Boards  of  Edu- 
cation in  favor  of  "  spray  baths  "  in  public  schools.  I 
am  convinced  that  this  would  incidentally  help  to 
solve  more  than  any  elaborate  mechanical  arrange- 
ments the  question  of  school  room  ventilation. 


308  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  teachers  should  make  it  their  duty  to  inspect 
the  childrens'  toilet  rooms  at  frequent  intervals,  and 
the  school  house  janitor  should  be  responsible  for 
their  cleanly  condition. 

The  influence  of  school  life  upon  a  child  often  makes 
itself  felt  throughout  its  whole  life.  At  no  period  of 
human  life  are  outside  hurtful  and  unsanitary  in- 
fluence apt  to  do  greater  harm  than  at  the  time  when 
the  organism  is  yet  undeveloped  and  least  liable  to 
resistance ;  hence  it  is  very  important  that  the  sani- 
tary appliances  in  schools  should  be  of  the  best  kind 
obtainable. 

Fig.  82  shows  in  plan  the  arrangement  of  a  de- 
tached water  closet  annex  or  pavilion  for  a  large 
school  house.  The  same  is  connected  with  the  main 
building  by  covered  walks,  the  boys'  and  girls'  sides 
being  divided  by  a  high  fence.  The  girls'  side  con- 
tains twenty  closets  and  a  teacher's  closet,  the  boys' 
side  eleven  closets,  a  trough  flushing  urinal  and  a 
teacher's  closet. 
Hospitals. 

The  custom  of  caring  for  the  sick  in  special  build- 
ings— hospitals — is  a  very  old  one.  In  centuries  gone 
by  the  arrangement  of  these  was  very  primitive,  yet 
even  to-day  examples  of  such  buildings  may  be  found, 
planned  and  constructed  without  due  regard  to  sani- 
tation. Indeed,  the  defects  of  the  sanitary  arrange- 
ments are  sometimes  such  that  instead  of  the  desired 
advantages  to  the  sick  patients,  injury  to  the  health 
results. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  309 

X 


Fig.  82.— Plan  of  a  water  closet  pavilion  for  a  large  school  house. 


310  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

If  anywhere,  it  is  here  where  we  must  insist  upon 
the  most  perfect  sanitation.  Many  plumbing  con- 
veniences are  required  as  necessary  adjuncts  to  each 
hospital  ward.  There  should  be  a  lavatory  room,  a 
bathroom,  a  \vater  closet  room  and  a  hospital  slop 
sink.  All  these  must  be  so  located  that  under  no 
circumstances  may  any  bad  odors  or  sewer  air  pene- 
trate to  the  wards.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sanitary 
appliances  must  be  in  close  proximity  to  the  wards 
to  enable  those  patients  who  can  leave  their  beds 
to  get  to  them  without  having  a  long  distance  to 
walk. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  location  of  water  closet  and 
bath  apartments  in  hospitals  is  in  separate  or  detached 
towers  or  wings,  connected  by  means  of  short  cor- 
ridors, with  cross-ventilation  with  the  wards.  Each 
ward  requires  at  least  two  water  closets  for  patients 
and  one  for  nurses  and  attendants.  The  fixtures 
should  be  of  the  best  obtainable  modern  type.  There 
should  be  a  special  compartment  for  a  hospital  slop 
sink  for  the  rinsing  of  chambers,  bed  pans,  etc.,  and 
this  should  also  be  the  best  sanitary  fixture  obtain- 
able. For  the  men's  ward  the  water  closet  room 
should  also  contain  a  urinal  fixture  with  automatic 
flushing  device.  Floors  and  walls  of  the  rooms  in 
which  the  hospital  plumbing  is  located  should  always 
be  made  water-tight,  non-absorbent  and  easily  wash- 
able in  order  to  preserve  absolute  cleanliness.  Large 
windows  for  light  are  essential,  likewise  a  perfect 
system  of  ventilation. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  3!! 

The  patients'  lavatory  should  be  in  an  adjoining 
room,  alwrays  separate  from  the  water  closet,  and 
another  separate  room  should  contain  a  bath,  prefer- 
ably a  glazed  porcelain  or  an  annealed  glass  bathtub, 
which  must  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  room  with  all 
sides  free  so  the  nurses  can  conveniently  bathe 
patients. 

Fig.  83  shows  the  general  plan  of  a  cottage  hospi- 
tal, wherein  the  plumbing  is  located  in  a  semi-de- 
tached wing,  connected  with  the  main  building  by  a 


Fig.  83. — Plan  showing  location  of  plumbing  in  a  side  wing 
of  a  cottage  hospital. 


short  corridor  with  windows  on  both  sides  for  cross- 
ventilation.  Fig.  84  is  a  plan  on  a  larger  scale  of  the 
plumbing  work  of  the  same  building.  The  room 
designated  A  in  both  illustrations  contains  a  spray 
bath,  room  B  contains  three  water  closets  and  one 
slop  sink,  and  room  C  contains  five  wash  basins. 

Wooden,  zinc  or  copper  tubs  are  absolutely  inadmis- 
sible for  hospitals  ;  wooden  or  cement  stone  floors 


3I2 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


and  porous  walls  are  likewise  bad.  No  materials 
should  be  employed  which  are  not  absolutely  non- 
absorbent  and  aseptic.  Under  no  circumstances  what- 


Fig.  84.— Detail  of  plumbing  in  cottage  hospital, 
illustrated  in  Fig.  83. 

ever  should  any  plumbing-  fixtures,  or  even  plumbing 
pipes,  be  tolerated  in  the  hospital  ward.  The  plumb- 
ing and  sewerage  must  be  constructed  with  the  best 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  313 

materials  and  arranged  so  as  to  effect  the  instant  re- 
moval of  all  sewage  from  hospital  buildings.  Where, 
as  in  hospitals  for  infectious  diseases,  the  sewage  is 
liable  to  contain  pathogenic  germs  ^of  disease,  proper 
facilities  for  instant  and  thorough  disinfection  of  the 
plumbing  fixtures  and  their  contents  must  be  pro- 
vided.* 

Hospitals  for  Insane. 

Inasmuch  as  the  patients  kept  in  these  buildings 
are  persons  deprived  of  reason,  who  often  act  in  a 
mischievous  manner  and  obstruct  the  water  closet 
fixtures  and  the  waste  pipes,  the  selection  of  the 
plumbing  appliances  require  a  very  careful  judg- 
ment. All  plumbing  in  such  buildings  must  be  par- 
ticularly strong,  durable  and  substantial ;  all  fancy 
work  and  fittings  must  be  considered  quite  out  of 
place. 

Fig.  85  shows  the  general  plan  of  the  toilet  room, 
lavatory  and  bath  accommodation  for  a  hospital  for 
insane,  all  plumbing  on  the  three  floors  being  located 
in  a  semi-detached  tower,  as  shown. 

The  water  closets  require  either  an  automatic  flush- 
ing system  or  else  closets  with  seat  action  mechanism, 
which  latter  tends  to  avoid  the  great  waste  of  water, 
so  noticeable  in  all  large  institutions  of  this  character. 

The  bathing  of  insane  patients  can  best  be  accom- 
plished by  means  of  spray  or  rain  baths.  Recent  ex- 


*  See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on  "  The  Water  Supply,  Sewerage  and  Plumbing  of  Hos- 
pital Buildings." 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


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Fig   85. — Plan  showing  hospital  plumbing  located  in  a  semi-detached  tower. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  315 

amples  of  well-appointed  bath  houses  for  insane 
patients  may  be  seen  at  the  Utica  State  Hospital  and 
at  the  Long  Island  State  Hospital  at  King's  Park,  L.  I. 
Both  of  these  were  planned  and  constructed  by  the 
author,  who  has  repeatedly  discussed  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  rain  baths  for  the  insane  elsewhere.  It  is  not 
necessary,  therefore,  to  give  more  than  a  passing 
allusion  to  the  subject.* 

Fig.  86  shows  the  plan  of  the  large  congregate 
bathroom  at  the  Long  Island  State  Hospital,  King's 
Park.  It  contains  fourteen  sprays  or  douches,  located 
on  three  sides  of  the  room,  besides  three  single 
douches  in  marble  stalls.  The  apparatus  for  control- 
ling the  douches  is  located  in  the  adjoining  room, 
where  the  lockers  and  tables  are  placed.  There  is 
also  a  large  dressing  room  with  adjoining  toilet  room. 

Plate  IV.  shows  one  form  of  spray  bath  apparatus 
as  installed  in  a  hospital  ward  of  a  State  hospital. 

Plate  V.  is  an  interior  view  of  the  large  congregate 
bathroom  at  the  Utica  State  Hospital.  It  contains 
thirty  overhead  inclined  douches,  nine  hand  sprays 
and  one  needle  and  shower  bath.  The  walls  are  lined 
with  marble,  the  floor  tiled  with  embossed  unglazed 
tiles.  In  the  centre  of  the  room  runs  a  gutter,  molded 
in  concrete  and  covered  with  a  brass  grating. 
Prisons,  Jails,  Penal  and  Reformatory  Institutions. 

It  is  a  cheerful  sign  of  the  times  that  much  more 
attention  than  formerly  is  nowadays  paid  to  the  sani- 

*  See  chapter  on  "  The  Modern  Rain  Bath,"  Vol.  II.,  and  the  other  articles  on 
bathing  in  same  volume. 


3i6 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


Fig.  86. — Plan  of  a  congregate  bathroom  in  a  large  hospital  for  the  insane. 


Plate  IV. — View  of  single  spray  bath  for  bathing  insane  patients 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  317 

tary  requirements  of  prisons  and  jails.  Jails  are  often 
found  in  a  notoriously  unsanitary  and  unhealthful 
condition.  Humanity  demands  that  those  who  have 
temporarily  lost  their  personal  freedom  should  not  be 
obliged  to  suffer  bodily  harm  during  imprisonment. 
The  State  must  properly  care  for  the  bodily  and  men- 
tal welfare  of  convicts  and  prisoners. 

The  arrangement  of  water  closet  conveniences  in 
prisons  depends  much  upon  the  system  of  prison 
management.  Where  prisoners  are  kept  locked  up 
together  the  problem  is  comparatively  easy,  and  con- 
sists in  the  arrangement  of  a  large  common  toilet 
room  with  water  closets  and  urinals,  of  a  lavatory 
room  and  of  bathing  arrangements.  In  the  separate 
convict's  cell  system  the  question  is  more  difficult, 
for  in  this  case  all  the  wants  of  prisoners  should  be 
provided  for  in  each  separate  cell,  and  the  arrange- 
ment becomes  much  more  expensive.  Each  cell 
should  have  an  enameled  iron  lavatory  and  also  a 
flushing  rim  hopper,  preferably  with  automatic  flush. 
The  quick  removal  of  the  excreta  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent air  pollution  and  the  danger  of  an  outbreak  of 
typhoid  fever  in  a  prison.  Where  a  water  carriage 
system  of  sewers  is  available,  a  water  closet  is,  of 
course,  the  best  appliance.  Where  this  cannot  be 
had,  portable  galvanized  iron  pails,  or  better  still, 
strong  portable  glazed  earthenware  jars,  placed  in  a 
recess  in  the  prison  wall  connected  with  a  vent  flue, 
and  a  daily  systematic  removal  of  the  contents,  are 
necessary. 


318  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

For  the  bathing"  of  prisoners  no  system  is  so  well 
adapted  as  that  of  spray  or  rain  baths,  because,  as  is 
now  well  proven,  they  require  but  little  space,  use  lit- 
tle water  and  enable  a  thorough  ablution  of  a  great 
many  prisoners  in  a  very  short  space  of  time. 

Military  Barracks,  Armories,  Soldiers'  Homes. 

The  arrangement  of  the  water  closet  rooms  for 
military  barracks  must  be  carefully  planned  and  con- 
structed. Here,  as  in  the  case  of  prisons,  we  have  to 
deal  with  buildings  which  are  filled  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  people,  for  the  health  of  whom  the  State  or  the 
Government  are  in  duty  bound  to  take  all  possible 
precautionary  measures.  The  floors  and  walls  of 
such  rooms  must  be  finished  with  waterproof  and 
non  absorbent  materials.  The  sanitary  appliances 
must  be  the  best  of  their  several  kinds,  and  fitted  up 
with  a  view  to  durability  and  strength.  Proper  and 
ample  provision  should  be  made  for  light  and  air  to 
the  water  closet  apartments. 

Fig.  87  shows  in  plan  the  general  arrangement  of 
the  toilet  room  and  lavatory  in  a  barrack  building1  of 
a  State  soldiers'  home.  As  seen  from  the  illustration, 
the  plumbing-  is  located  in  a  detached  wing  or  tower, 
connected  on  three  sides  by  corridors  with  the  main 
building.  The  room  containing  the  plumbing-  is 
divided  off  into  two  parts.  One  contains  the  water 
closets,  of  which  there  are  twenty,  and  two  trough 
urinals,  and  the  other  contains  thirty-two  sectional 
enameled  iron  wash  stands. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


319 


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Fig.  87. — Plan  showing  toilet  room  for  a  barrack  building  for  a  soldiers'  home. 


32O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Fig.  88  shows  in  plan  a  very  large  toilet  room  in 
the  basement  of  an  armory  building-  for  State  National 
Guards.  One  apartment  contains  thirty  water  closets, 
twenty-four  urinals  and  three  basins.  The  adjoining 
room  contains  forty-four  wash  basins,  and  in  a  sepa- 
rate room  ten  spray  baths. 

The  best  bathing  arrangement  for  military  barracks 
consists  in  the  use  of  the  spray  or  rain  bath.  The 
latter,  in  fact,  originated  in  buildings  for  the  housing 
of  soldiers,  at  first  in  France  and  subsequently  in 
Germany. 

Stables  and  Riding  Academies. 

The  water  closet  arrangements  for  stables  are 
usually  simple  in  character,  although  luxurious  toilet 
rooms  in  large  private  stables  are  by  no  means  rare. 
Sometimes  these  also  contain  a  bathroom.  Elaborate 
bathing  conveniences  are  often  found  in  riding  acad- 
emies, including  shower,  needle  and  spray  baths,  and 
even  large  swimming  pools. 
Railroad  Stations  and  Ferry  Houses. 

As  a  rule,  the  water  closets  and  toilet  rooms  at- 
tached to  the  waiting  rooms  of  ferry  houses  and  rail- 
road depots  are  fitted  up  in  anything  but  a  satisfac- 
tory manner,  although  one  occasionally  finds  an  ex- 
ception to  this  statement.  In  the  majority  of 
instances  such  toilet  rooms  for  the  public  are  in  an 
extremely  disgraceful  condition  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view.  Indeed,  one  often  cannot  help  wondering 
why  railroad  companies,  instead  of  boasting  that  they 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS. 


21 


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Fig.  88 — Plan  of  toilet  room,  lavatories  and  spray  baths  of  a  large  armory  building. 


322  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

are  running  "the  fastest  train  in  the  world,"  or  that 
they  have  the  "most  luxuriously  appointed  vestibule, 
sleeping,  parlor  and  dining-  cars  on  their  trains," 
should  not  rather  bestow  a  little  more  attention  to 
the  sanitary  conditions  of  their  railroad  stations  ! 

And  to  go  a  step  farther,  would  it  not  be  a  com- 
mendable idea  if  railroad  directors  would  spend  a 
part  of  the  earnings  of  the  roads  to  provide  cheap 
but  inviting  facilities  for  bathing  for  their  employes, 
particularly  for  the  locomotive  engineers  and  firemen, 
for  the  conductors  and  train  hands,  and  for  the 
mechanics  employed  in  the  workshops  of  the  road  ? 
A  simple  form  of  rain  bath,  plenty  of  warm  water,  a 
piece  of  soap  and  a  clean  towel,  these  are  all  the  re- 
quisites necessary  to  enable  the  railroad  employes  to 
enjoy  cleanliness,  which  in  turn  would  tend  to  main- 
tain their  health  and  working  strength. 

Court  Houses,  City  Halls,  Capitol  Buildings. 

In  all  such  public  buildings  there  is  a  large  number 
of  persons  employed  during  business  hours,  for  whom 
proper  toilet  room  facilities  must  be  provided.  The 
convenience  of  the  public  who  transact  business  in 
these  buildings  should  likewise  be  considered.  The 
details  need  not  be  discussed,  as  they  do  not  differ 
in  any  essential  from  those  for  office  buildings. 

Market  Houses. 

The  toilet  rooms  and  sanitary  appliances  for  these 
do  not  require  special  mention,  and  are  usually  simple 
in  character. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  323 

Orphan  Asylums,  Poor  Houses,  Institutions  for  the  Blind, 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  etc. 

In  these  buildings  the  arrangement  of  water  closet 
and  bath  apartments  is  quite  similar  to  those  of 
schools,  hospitals  and  other  public  institutions,  and 
therefore  they  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Public  Bath  Houses. 

In  order  to  retain  healthfulness,  all  human  beings 
require  constant  attention  to  and  care  of  the  body  in 
order  that  the  functions  of  the  skin  be  performed  with 
regularity.  Health  is  best  maintained  by  cleanliness, 
for  which  frequent  ablutions,  not  merely  of  the  hands 
and  face,  but  of  the  entire  body,  are  essential. 

It  is  a  deplorable  fact  that  many  habitations  are 
still  unprovided  with  bathing  facilities.  It,  therefore, 
becomes  the  sacred  duty  of  the  municipality  to  pro- 
vide for  the  poor  in  our  midst  a  sufficient  number  of 
public  baths,  where  they  can  attain  cleanliness  of  the 
body. 

Of  the  several  systems  available,  i.  e.,  full  bath- 
tubs, swimming  baths,  river  or  ocean  baths  and  rain 
baths,  the  latter  are  designed  to  become  more  popular 
as  they  become  better  known.  They  permit  bathing 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  are  economical  in  the  use 
of  water,  and  are  not  only  cleansing  baths,  but  their 
tonic  effect  is  far-reaching,  and  tends  to  invigorate 
the  body  by  stimulating  the  action  of  its  vital  organs. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  the  spray  or  rain  bath  is  emi- 
nently adopted  not  merely  for  military  barracks, 


324 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS, 


Fig.  89 — Plan  of  a  public  rain  bath. 


WATER    CLOSET    AND    BATH    APARTMENTS.  325 

prisons,  schools  and  industrial  establishments;  but 
pre-eminently  as  a  bath  for  the  masses.* 

In  Fig.  89  I  illustrate  the  first  floor  plan  of  a  public 
rain  bath,  fitted  up  in  New  York  City  from  my  plans 
and  under  my  immediate  direction.  The  women's 
baths  are  located  on  this  floor,  and  comprise  eleven 
separate  spray  bath  compartments,  one  room  with 
bathtub  for  the  bathing  of  infants,  two  water  closets 
and  one  slop  sink.  The  men's  baths  are  located 
directly  underneath  in  the  basement,  and  are  reached 
by  separate  stairs  and  entrance  from  the  street. 

So  much  has  been  said  recently  about  the  arrange- 
ment  of  such  baths  that  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  go 
into  details.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  refer  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  toilet  rooms  in  such  structures, 
which,  of  course,  must  be  as  nearly  perfect  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them. 

*  See  articles  in  Vol.  II.,  on  "  Bathing  "  and  on  "  The  Modern  Rain  Bath." 


IX. 

A  PLEA  FOR  SANITATION    IN    FACTORIES 
AND  WORKSHOPS.* 


Of  late  years  much  has  been  said  and  much  more 
written  about  the  importance  of  healthful  homes  and 
a  healthy  mode  of  living.  Little  stress,  however,  has 
been  laid  upon  the  equally  important  duty  of  main- 
taining a  good  sanitary  condition  in  buildings  where 
a  large  number  of  people — men,  women  or  children- 
are  congregated  from  early  morning  until  late  at 
night,  to  perform  hand  labor  or  brain  work.  There 
is  no  sound  reason  why  buildings  of  the  latter  class 
such  as  factories  and  workshops,  offices  and  stores, 
should  not  receive  the  same  careful  attention  from 
practical  sanitarians  as  do  the  homes  of  the  rich  and 
of  the  poor.  Leaving  aside  warehouses,  office  build- 
ings and  stores,  I  limit  the  following  remarks  to  fac- 
tories and  workshops. 

A  lively  interest  has  recently  been  revived  every- 
where in  the  question  of  providing  healthy  homes  for 
laborers  and  mechanics.  Commissions  are  created  in 
large  cities  to  inquire  into  the  existing  conditions, 
and  model  tenement  houses  and  improved  working- 
men's  homes  are  planned  and  erected.  But  the  fac- 
tories and  workshops  where  the  same  workmen,  many 

*  This  article  appeared  first  in  Mechanics,  January,  1886. 


SANITATION    IN    FACTORIES    AND    WORKSHOPS.       327 

women  and  even  children,  spend  day  after  day,  seem 
to  have  been  almost  entirely  overlooked.  Certain  it 
is  that  their  sanitary  features  are  less  carefully  con- 
sidered, and  their  actual  condition  but  rarely  in- 
spected. 

In  my  judgment,  the  physical  well-being  of  me- 
chanics and  workmen  is  a  topic  which  deserves  care- 
ful attention  not  merely  from  philanthropists,  but 
from  each  and  every  manufacturer  throughout  our 
broad  land.  We  can  point,  it  is  true,  with  honest 
pride  and  not  a  little  satisfaction,  to  several  instances 
where  enterprising  and  energetic  employers  of  labor 
have  done  a  great  deal  toward  the  amelioration  of 
the  conditions  under  which  work  is  carried  on  for 
them  in  their  industrial  establishments.  Yet  it  would 
seem  to  me  as  if  much  more  might  be  accomplished 
in  the  same  direction,  if  our  Health  Boards  and  State 
Legislatures  would  consider  this  subject  intelligently, 
and  if  proper  and  needed  laws  would  be  enacted  to 
carry  out  more  fully  and  universally  the  requirements 
of  hygiene  in  their  practical  application  to  factories 
and  workshops.  It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  much 
good  has  already  been  accomplished  in  England  and 
other  countries  by  a  strict  carrying  out  of  proper  leg- 
islative measures.  Nor  would  it  seem  to  require  a 
spirit  of  humanity  on  the  part  of  employers  to  cause 
needed  improvements  in  the  sanitary  condition  of 
working  places.  I  say  this  advisedly,  for  it  must 
be  obvious  to  every  thoughtful  mind  that  much  more 
work  and,  moreover,  work  of  a  better  quality  could 


328  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

be  done,  and  better  results  in  every  way  accomplished, 
in  healthful  surroundings.  It  would  not,  therefore, 
entail  hardship  on  employers,  who  at  present,  prob- 
ably owing  to  the  extremely  cjose  competition  in 
many  manufacturing  enterprises,  often  shrink  from 
the  necessary  expenditures,  entirely  forgetting  that 
they  cannot  fail  to  be  benefited  themselves  by  ex- 
penditures in  the  interest  of  the  health  of  their  opera- 
tives. 

Sanitation  in  factories  and  workshops  is  closely 
connected  with  the  broader  social  question  agitating 
our  country,  the  labor  question,  or,  as  some  prefer  to 
call  it,  the  struggle  between  capital  and  labor.  With- 
out a  desire  to  enter  here  into  a  discussion  of  this 
grave  question,  I  will  simply  state  that  I  regard 
it  as  a  matter  of  course  that,  wherever  a  workman 
enters  into  a  verbal  or  written  agreement  with  a 
manufacturer,  by  which  he  sells  to  the  latter  his  labor, 
this  contract  implies  on  the  part  of  the  employer  the 
providing  of  all  necessary  means  tending  to  protect 
the  workingman,  and,  in  particular,  to  maintain  in 
the  places  where  work  is  performed,  a  good  sanitary 
condition.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  the  first  step 
toward  the  improvement  of  the  social  condition  of  the 
laboring  classes,  while  the  providing  of  healthful 
homes  should  be  a  secondary,  though  by  no  means 
insignificant,  consideration. 

Incidentally  I  desire  to  draw  attention  to  a  seri- 
ous evil  of  a  different  character,  which  should  be 
looked  into  by  our  legislators,  namely,  the  carrying 


SANITATION    IN    FACTORIES    AND    WORKSHOPS.       329 

on  of  trades  in  overcrowded  and  unventilated  tene- 
ments. Employers  of  labor  under  such  conditions 
are  seldom  possessed  of  means  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  carry  out  improvements.  But  there  are,  un- 
fortunately, instances  on  record  where  the  avaricious- 
ness  of  landlords  or  of  employers  of  tenement  labor, 
has  entirely  drowned  even  the  slightest  feeling  of 
humanity. 

Workmen  in  large  factories  and  workshops  are  in 
many  cases  exposed  to  grave  dangers  which  tend 
constantly  to  undermine  their  health — often  their 
only  capital — or  to  imperil  their  lives,  and  thus,  per- 
haps, to  leave  their  families  without  means  of  sup- 
port. In  many  occupations  they  are  constantly  sub- 
ject to  the  inhalation  of  irritating  and  injurious 
metallic,  mineral  or  organic  dusts,  causing  fatal  lung 
diseases  or  consumption.  In  others,  they  are  obliged 
to  breathe  for  hours  offensive  or  even  poisonous 
vapors  and  gases,  resulting  from  chemical  manufac- 
turing processes.  In  another  class  of  occupations, 
laborers  are  compelled  to  endure  sudden  and  excess- 
ive changes  of  temperature,  or  are  subjected  to  great 
heat,  or  to  an  excess  of  humidity,  while  in  still 
another  class  they  must  necessarily  perform  work 
continuously  in  unfavorable  and  unnatural  positions 
of  the  body,  or  must  at  times  undergo  unusual  exer- 
tions of  force.  In  many  workshops  mechanics  are 
exposed  to  serious  accidents  and  injuries  resulting 
from  coming  in  contact  with  moving  machinery,  and 
this  is  also  the  case  in  many  manufacturing  processes, 


33O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

where  labor-saving  machinery  is  employed,  such  as 
in  mills,  etc. 

Another  question  of  importance  which  should  re- 
ceive careful  consideration,  although  I  can  make  but 
mere  mention  of  it,  is  to  what  extent  child  labor 
should  be  permitted  in  factories  and  workshops,  and 
also  how  far  the  employment  of  women  in  manual 
labor  should  be  restricted. 

To  reduce  the  possibilities  of  personal  injuries  safety 
appliances  should  be  provided.  All  exposed  danger- 
ous parts  of  machinery,  such  as  shafting,  gearing  and 
belting,  should  be  guarded  by  railings,  or  covered 
with  boards,  or  fenced  in  with  wire  netting,  to  pre- 
vent contact  with  them  while  in  motion.  Elevator 
shafts  should  be  securely  closed  and  hoisting  machin- 
ery provided  with  safety  catches.  It  should  be  for- 
bidden to  clean  machinery  while  in  motion,  and 
workmen  employed  at  dangerous  apparatus  should 
wear  suitable  close-fitting  dress  to  prevent  injuries  to 
their  limbs.  Again,  to  avoid  explosions,  steam  boil- 
ers should  be  periodically  inspected,  and  the  engineer 
and  fireman  in  charge  of  them  minutely  instructed 
as  to  the  management  of  the  apparatus.  Each  fac- 
tory should  have  a  set  of  proper  rules  and  regulations 
for  the  guidance  of  the  operatives.  Greatly  to  be 
desired  is  a  series  of  lectures,  such  as  has  recently 
been  furnished  to  New  Yorkers,  delivered  in  winter 
evenings  to  the  foremen  and  workmen  of  machine 
shops,  mills  or  factories,  on  the  "  First  Aid  to  the 
Injured." 


SANITATION    IN    FACTORIES    AND    WORKSHOPS.       33! 

Wherever  dust  is  generated  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facturing-, special  mechanical  appliances  should  be 
provided  to  carry  off  injurious  particles  before  they 
mingle  with  the  atmosphere  of  the  room.  In  the  case 
of  chemical  processes  generating  noxious  gases  or 
vapors,  proper  mechanical  apparatus  should  be  oper- 
ated to  remove  at  once  the  poisonous  gases  before 
they  are  inhaled.  All  this  seems  self-evident,  and  is 
easily  understood  when  pointed  out,  but  in  practice 
we  frequently  encounter  flagrant  violations  of  these 
simple  rules. 

Aside,  however,  from  such  special  means  required, 
in  special  cases  it  is  at  all  times  necessary  that  the 
building  and  its  surroundings  should  be  maintained 
in  a  proper  sanitary  condition.  This  implies  that  the 
soil  on  which  the  factory  or  mill  is  erected,  should  be 
well  underdrained,  kept  dry  and  free  from  organic 
contaminations,  and  that  the  structure  be  erected  of 
proper  materials,  due  precautions  being  observed  to 
prevent  dampness  of  walls  and  dry-rot  of  timbers. 
It  means,  furthermore,  that  there  should  be  ample 
space  to  prevent  overcrowding  of  the  workrooms, 
and  that  separate  rooms  be  provided  where  the  work- 
men may  take  frequent  ablutions  of  hands,  face  and 
body,  and  others  where  they  may  take  their  meals 
during  recess,  remote  from  their  places  of  work.  It 
means,  that  the  most  powerful  factor  toward  the 
maintenance  of  health,  cleanliness,  be  minutely  ob- 
served ;  in  particular  that  floors  be  kept  well  swept 
and  dry,  that  litter,  rags  and  cotton  waste  be  daily 


332  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF     BUILDINGS. 

removed,  and  that  walls  be  whitewashed  at  frequent 
intervals. 

Moreover,  there  should  be  an  entire  freedom  from 
any  noxious  effluvia  and  plenty  of  ventilation,  which 
can  be  readily  provided  in  factories  owing  to  the 
always  available  motive  power,  which  can  be  applied 
to  the  running  of  suitable  machinery  for  the  removal 
of  foul  air  and  the  equally  necessary  introduction  of 
large  quantities  of  fresh  air  of  proper  temperature. 

All  workrooms  should  be  large,  airy  and  well- 
lighted,  and  where  artificial  lighting  is  required,  it 
should  be  arranged  with  a  view  to  prevent  an  undue 
contamination  of  the  atmosphere  by  gases  of  combus- 
tion. A  proper  system  of  heating,  preferably  by 
steam  in  all  larger  establishments,  must  be  devised, 
due  attention  being  paid  to  the  proper  regulation  of 
the  temperature  in  the  workrooms  and  to  the  avoid- 
ance of  over-heating.  Ample  flowing  water  should 
be  provided  for  on  all  floors,  for  drinking  purposes, 
for  sprinkling  and  scrubbing  of  floors,  for  plumbing 
fixtures  and  for  fire  extinguishing  purposes. 

A  most  desirable  feature  is  a  number  of  well-lighted 
and  ventilated  water  closets  and  urinals  arranged 
entirely  separate  for  the  operatives  of  both  sexes. 
All  plumbing  work  required  should  be  of  the  plainest 
character,  yet  substantial,  strong  and  safe,  and  ar- 
ranged with  ample  ventilation  and  preferably  with 
automatic  flushing  devices,  and  with  an  entire  avoid- 
ance of  all  kind  of  complicated  and  easily  deranged 
mechanical  apparatus.  The  removal  of  sewage  from 


SANITATION    IN    FACTORIES    AND    WORKSHOPS.       333 

the  buildings  should  be  complete  and  instantaneous, 
and  in  the  case  of  mills  or  factories  in  rural  districts, 
proper  consideration  should  also  be  devoted  to  the 
prevention  of  pollution  of  water  courses  by  industrial 
waste  and  to  the  innocuous  disposal  of  all  sewage 
and  organic  refuse  matters  outside  of  foundation 
walls.  With  manufacturing  establishments  in  subur- 
ban districts,  on  the  other  hand,  the  points  to  be 
guarded  against  are  the  pollution  of  the  surrounding 
air  by  chemical  vapors,  injurious  or  poisonous  gases, 
and  by  smoke. 

All  industrial  buildings  and  workshops  should  be 
constructed  with  the  greatest  consideration  of  safety 
from  fire.  Every  building  where  a  large  number  of 
operatives  are  employed,  should  be  made  as  fire-re- 
sisting as  possible,  by  adopting  the  so-called  "  slow- 
burning  "  method  of  construction,  so  ably  advocated 
since  a  number  of  years  by  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson, 
of  Boston,  and  his  zealous  and  efficient  associates. 
Ample  means  should  be  devised  and  arranged  for 
extinguishing  a  conflagration  before  it  has  a  chance 
to  gain  much  headway.  Self-acting  fire-alarms  and 
automatic  sprinklers  are  great  aids  in  preventing  loss 
of  life  and  destruction  of  valuable  property.  Strong 
and  safe  staircases  and  exits  should  be  arranged  in 
proper  number  and  position,  and  in  addition  to  these 
a  sufficient  number  of  fire-escapes,  not  the  usual  objec- 
tionable iron  ladders  with  vertical  steps,  but  wide 
and  strong  external  iron  staircases,  leading  directly 
to  outdoors  from  every  large  workroom  on  each  floor 
of  the  building. 


334  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Enough  has  been  said,  I  believe,  to  explain  the 
importance  of  a  healthful  condition  of  factories. 
This,  I  am  convinced,  can  best  be  attained  as  well 
as  maintained,  by  a  periodical  sanitary  inspection. 
Theoretically,  all  the  points  should  be  observed  and 
looked  into,  which  combined  make  up  a  thorough 
sanitary  inspection  of  dwellings,  and  which  the  writer 
has  discussed  in  his  book,  "  A  Guide  to  Sanitary 
House  Inspection."*  Practically,  the  means  and  ap- 
pliances to  be  adopted  will  differ  more  or  less  in  the 
case  of  factories  and  workshops  from  those  recom- 
mended for  dwelling  houses.  Volumes  might  be 
written  on  the  subject,  it  being  quite  impossible  in 
the  brief  space  of  a  single  article  to  touch  upon  all 
points  of  importance.  What  I  desire  to  emphasize 
is  that  true  practical  progress  in  all  manufacturing 
industries  should  begin  with  a  thorough  sanitation  of 
the  places  where  manufacturing  processes  are  carried 
on.  The  object  of  these  few  notes  will  be  fulfilled  if 
it  should  set  all  earnest  and  thoughtful  minds  think- 
ing about  the  necessity  of  health  in  the  factory  and  in 
the  workshop. 

*  See  William  Paul  Gerhard,  "A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection."     Pub- 
lished by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  3d  edition.     Price,  $1.00. 


X. 

SANITARY  DRAINAGE  OF  TENEMENT 
HOUSES.* 


The  term  "  sanitary  drainage"  has  a  peculiarly 
important  meaning-  if  applied  to  the  class  of  buildings 
known  as  tenement  houses. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  word  tenement  house  signi- 
fies any  building  for  rent,  occupied  by  several  fam- 
ilies living  independently  of  each  other.  It  includes, 
therefore,  a  large  number  of  buildings,  which  have 
sprung  up  within  the  last  few  years  in  some  of  our 
largest  cities,  and  which  are  usually  called  "  apart- 
ment houses  "  or  "  flats."  In  the  following  remarks 
I  shall,  however,  exclude  the  latter  and  limit  them 
more  particularly  to  buildings  in  cities  intended  as 


*  The  writer  endeavored  to  confine  himself  in  this  essay,  which  was  origin- 
ally prepared  for  the  Connecticut  State  Board  of  Health,  and  published  in  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Board  for  1884,  to  a  plain  statement  of  the  ordinary  defects 
in  plumbing,  and  to  a  brief  summary  of  rules  for  a  proper  method  of  "Sanitary 
Drainage."  Those  readers  who  are  in  search  of  detailed  explanations  and  argu- 
ments will  find  the  subject  fully  discussed  from  the  author's  standpoint  in  his 
book:  "  House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing,"  published  by  D.  Van  Nostrand 
Co,,  Seventh  Edition  1898,  New  York.  The  original  essay  was  illustrated  with 
cuts  from  the  author's  book,  "  Hints  on  the  Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  Dwellings." 

In  giving  permission  to  reprint  this  article,  the  Secretary  of  the  Connecticut  State 
Board  of  Health,  Prof.  Dr.  C.  A.  Lindsley,  of  New  Haven,  wrote  as  follows: 

"  The  article  has  served  its  purpose  for  us  and  we  think  has  been  very  useful. 
It  has  been  much  inquired  for.  Now,  if  in  any  other  form  it  can  be  made  to  do 
other  good  work,  it  will  only  be  carrying  out  the  purposes  and  aims  of  the  Board, 
viz. :  the  better  instruction  of  the  public  and  an  improvement  in  the  conditions 
which  concern  their  health." 


336  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Laborers'  Dwellings  or  Workingmens'  Homes.  These 
are  the  buildings  of  which  we  usually  think  when 
speaking  or  reading  of  tenements,  associated  with 
which  word  are  thoughts  of  indescribable  misery, 
poverty,  squalor  and  filth,  overcrowding,  disease, 
epidemics,  infant  mortality,  as  well  as  intemperance, 
loose  morals,  vice  and  crime. 

Under  such  modes  of  living  an  isolation  in  case  of 
an  outbreak  of  epidemic  disease  becomes  much  more 
difficult  than  in  the  case  of  private  dwellings  or  cot- 
tages, and  the  ill  influence  of  bad  drainage  in  partiqu- 
lar  upon  zymotic  diseases  makes  itself  more  keenly 
felt.  Add  to  this  the  general  slovenliness  in  every- 
thing relating  to  domestic  cleanliness,  the  usual  bad 
state  of  overcrowding,  the  tainted  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  and  the  lack  of  sunshine  in  most  of  these 
buildings,  and  it  may  be  easily  understood  why  the 
mortality  rate,  especially  that  of  infants,  is  so  ex- 
tremely high  in  buildings  of  this  class. 

The  effect  of  this  arrangement  of  houses,  says  Charles  E.  Brace, 
Esq.,  upon  the  morals  of  our  population,  is  even  more  disastrous. 
In  many  quarters  of  the  city  family  life  and  the  feeling  of  home  are 
almost  unknown;  people  live  in  great  caravansaries  which  are  hot 
and  stifling  in  summer,  disagreeable  in  winter,  and  where  children 
associate  together  in  the  worst  ways.  In  many  rooms  privacy  and 
purity  are  unattainable,  and  young  girls  grow  up  accustomed  to  im- 
modesty from  their  earliest  years.  Boys  herd  together  in  gangs,  and 
learn  the  practices  of  crime  and  vice  before  they  are  out  of  child- 
hood. Even  the  laborers'  families  who  occupy  separate  rooms  in 
these  buildings  have  no  sense  of  home.  They  do  not  own  the  house 
nor  any  part  of  it,  nor  have  they  any  interest  in  it.  All  that  valuable 
industry  which,  in  the  country,  a  mechanic  or  laborer  applies  in  odd 
hours  to  his  little  homestead  is  here  lost.  The  workmen  spends  his 
leisure  hours  in  the  grogshops  or  at  the  corner  groceries.  The  gen- 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       337 

eral  effect  of  the  system  is  the  existence  of  a  proletaire  class  who 
have  no  interest  in  the  permanent  well-being  of  the  community,  who 
have  no  sense  of  home,  and  who  live  without  any  deep  root  in  the 
soil,  the  mere  tools  of  demagogues  and  designing  men. 

For  ages  sanitarians  have  agreed  upon  the  truth  of 
the  old  proverb,  " mens  sana  in  corpore  sano"  but  not 
until  lately  has  it  been  more  generally  recognized 
that  to  live  healthfully  we  need  healthful  surroundings. 

Let  us,  then,  strike  at  the  root  of  the  evil :  before 
we  try  to  raise  the  moral  habits  of  a  tenement  popu- 
lation, let  us  endeavor  to  improve  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  the  workingmen's  homes. 

In  justice  to  our  architects  it  must  be  said  that  they 
had  little,  if  anything,  to  do  with  the  planning  of 
tenement  houses  until  a  few  years  ago,  and  it  is 
equally  true  that  since  the  last  few  years,  when  pub- 
lic interest  was  aroused  in  this  question,  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  planning  and  arrangement  of 
"  improved  laborers'  dwellings,"  erected  in  some  of 
our  large  cities,  is  apparent. 

To  the  writer's  mind  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
better  and  worthier  deed  for  philanthropists,  no  prob- 
lem more  interesting  to  the  architect,  no  question 
more  important  to  the  practical  sanitarian,  than  the 
improvement  of  the  homes  of  the  laboring  classes  in 
large  cities,  for  the  decent  poor  are  the  ones  that 
through  sheer  necessity  are  compelled  to  live  in  such 
generally  wretched  abodes  and  hot-beds  of  disease, 
vice  and  crime.* 

*  See  "  How  the  Poor  Live,"  by  George  R.  Sims,  London.     New  York  :  Scrib- 
ner  &  Welford. 


33$  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  sanitary  requirements  for  tenement  houses  are 
many,  but  most  of  them  can  be  provided  for  without 
undue  sacrifice  of  economy  in  building.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  now  accepted  as  true,  that  landlords 
or  owners,  who  pay  proper  attention  to  the  sanitary 
condition  of  their  houses,  will  soon  be  amply  repaid 
by  receiving-  better  rents,  besides  having  in  their  tene- 
ments a  better  class  of  tenants. 

With  the  exception  of  the  lowest,  filthiest  class  of 
people — the  depraved,  vicious,  criminal — all  tenants 
will  appreciate  better  sanitary  appointments  offered  to 
them,  and  will  strive  to  keep  the  tenements  in  proper 
and  cleanly  condition. 

Among  the  chief  sanitary  requirements  of  tene- 
ment buildings,  are  : 

Personal  safety  (fire  escapes,  ample  stairs,  strong 
ceilings.) 

Pure  air  and  efficient  ventilation. 

Plenty  of  light. 

Plenty  of  space  to  prevent  overcrowding. 

Proper  drainage  and  removal  of  all  household  waste. 

Plentiful  supply  of  wholesome  water. 

Proper  disposal  of  garbage  and  ashes. 

Thorough  dryness  of  cellars  and  foundation  walls. 

We  limit  our  consideration  to  the  correct  features 
of  a  proper  removal,  through  plumbing  fixtures  and 
drain  pipes,  of  the  liquid  and  semi-liquid  wastes,  in 
particular  of  all  excretions  of  the  human  body,  and 
this  is  what  may  be  called  sanitary  drainage,  Inci- 
dentally, other  requirements  will  be  referred  to,  for 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       339 

the  serious  evils  of  faulty  plumbing  work  are  intensi- 
fied through  bad  ventilation,  insufficient  lighting  and 
bad  planning  with  reference  to  location  of  plumbing 
fixtures,  while  closely  connected  to  a  proper  arrange- 
ment of  water  closets  is  the  requirement  of  a  never- 
ceasing  and  liberal  supply  of  water  for  flushing  these 
fixtures. 

A  proper  system  of  drainage  should  remove  from 
the  household  at  once,  and  with  thoroughness,  all 
liquid  wastes  together  with  the  excretions  from  the 
human  body.  To  these  is  sometimes  added  the  com- 
plete removal  of  surface  and  sub-soil  water.  The  lat- 
ter function  is  important  to  insure  a  dry  and  healthy 
soil,  and  to  prevent  the  dampness  of  habitations, 
which  is  a  frequent  cause  of  neuralgia  and  rheuma- 
tism, and  tends  to  predispose  people  to  consumption 
and  pulmonary  diseases.  All  foul  wastes  must  be 
instantly  removed,  should  stagnation  occur,  putrefac- 
tion of  the  organic  matter  will  soon  begin,  and  gases 
of  decomposition  commonly  known  as  sewer  gases — 
although  they  are  to  a  large  extent  generated  in 
human  habitations — will  endanger  the  purity  of  the 
air  of  the  building.  There  cannot  be  the  slightest 
doubt  that  a  large  number  of  preventable  diseases, 
especially  those  known  as  "  filth  diseases,"  owe  their 
propagation  and  spread  to  germs  or  micro-organisms, 
living  and  multiplying  in  such  gases  of  decay,  and  if 
this  is  so,  it  is  at  once  apparent  how  important  it  is  to 
so  arrange  a  proper  system  of  tenement  drainage  as 
to  prevent  any  entrance  of  sewer  air. 


340  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  entrance  of  sewer  air  into  dwellings  may  be 
due  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  causes : 

1.  A  defective  system  of  pipes  and  pipe  joints. 

2.  A  defective  method  of  trapping. 

3.  A  defective  arrangement  of  fixtures. 
Defects  in  the  Pipe  System. 

Under  this  heading  I  will  consider  the  pipe  con- 
necting the  house  to  the  sewer,  commonly  called  the 
house  drain,  although  house  sewer  would  be  a  more 
correct  expression  ;  the  vertical  soil  and  waste  pipes, 
the  air  pipes  and  vent  pipes,  the  leader  or  rain-water 
pipes,  the  pipes  for  yard  drainage,  for  cellar  floor 
drainage,  and  finally,  the  drain  pipes,  removing  the 
sub-soil  water  from  the  site  of  dwellings. 

As  the  most  serious  among  defects  of  the  house 
sewer  should  be  mentioned  leaky  joints.  That  part 
of  the  house  sewer  which  is  outside  the  house  is  gen- 
erally laid  with  vitrified  pipes.  In  most  tenement 
houses  built  previous  to  the  last  few  years,  no  at- 
tempt at  jointing  the  pipes  was  ever  made.  The 
spigot  end  of  one  pipe  was  simply  inserted  into  the 
socket  of  the  next  pipe,  thus  leaving  a  large  space 
through  which  part  of  the  filthy  liquid  from  the  house- 
hold settled  away  into  the  ground.  It  is  probably 
assumed  by  ignorant  builders,  or  drain-layers,  that 
no  harm  can  result  from  such  mistaken  economy. 
Many  are  entirely  indifferent,  even  when  told  that  a 
serious  contamination  of  the  sub-soil  near  habitations 
will  result  from  such  a  pernicious  practice.  The  effect 
of  leakage  on  the  house  sewer  is  a  quicker  stopping 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       341 

up  by  reason  *of  accumulation  of  solid  matter  left 
stranded  in  the  pipes. 

Accumulations  of  deposits  and  stoppages  are  in- 
creased by  the  faulty,  haphazard  manner  of  laying 
such  pipes  without  regard  to  alignment  or  grade.  In- 
stances are  frequent  where  pipes  slope  toward  the 
house  instead  of  toward  the  sewer.  Another  cause 
for  accumulation  of  foul  matter  is  the  mistaken  notion 
prevalent  among  builders  and  drain-layers,  that  the 
larger  the  pipe  is  the  less  chance  there  is  for  stoppage. 
Unfortunately,  the  reverse  is  true.  The  smaller  a 
house  sewer  is  made,  within  the  limits  of  desired 
capacity,  the  more  readily  will  it  keep  clean.  For 
tenement  houses  having  a  population  not  overfastidi- 
ous  in  their  habits,  and  having  a  large  number  of 
families  living  independently  of  each  other,  and  not 
having,  as  in  the  case  of  private  dwelling  houses,  a 
responsible  head  of  the  household,  a  house  sewer 
should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  smaller  than  six  inches  in 
diameter.  Even  where  the  greatest  care  has  been 
bestowed  upon  the  drainage  apparatus  in  building 
the  tenement,  the  pipes  are  often  afterwards  made 
the  receptacles  of  rags,  brushes,  potato  parings,  sticks, 
ashes  and  other  substances  not  intended  to  be  re- 
moved by  the  pipes,  and  frequent  stoppages  are  the 
result. 

The  house  sewer  is  often  continued,  of  vitrified 
pipe,  through  the  cellar  wall  into  the  building,  and 
where  no  more  care  upon  its  joints  and  the  details  of 
pipe  laying  is  bestowed  than  outside  the  building, 


342  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

the  soil  under  it  is  soon  converted  into  a  large  cess- 
pool. The  pipes  frequently  break  where  they  pass 
through  the  foundation  walls  when  these  settle,  and 
the  whole  or  a  large  part  of  the  house  sewage  may 
thus  be  delivered  into  the  ground,  while  a  long  time 
may  elapse  before  such  defect  is  even  noticed  or 
remedied. 

Brick  conduits  under  the  cellar  floor  are  frequently 
built  to  act  as  sewers.  Their  shape  is  generally 
square,  the  bottom  flat,  and  the  sewage  spreads  on  it 
in  a  shallow  stream,  the  velocity  of  which  is  too  small 
to  remove  deposits.  The  mortar  used  for  such  brick 
drains  is  often  of  the  poorest  kind  ;  sometimes  the 
conduit  is  built  of  stones,  laid  dry.  Such  drains  fre- 
quently choke  up  or  else  they  collapse.  They  are 
often,  after  being  in  use  some  years,  found  completely 
filled  with  an  accumulation  of  putrid  filth. 

In  the  past  years  iron  plumber's  pipe  has  been  used 
for  the  house  sewer  inside  of  buildings.  For  tene- 
ment houses  light  soil  pipe,  i.  e.,  pipe  having  a  thick- 
ness of  only  one-eighth  inch,  was  used  almost  exclu- 
sively. This  pipe  has  well  been  called  a  "  trashy " 
article  of  manufacture,  for  it  is  often  full  of  cracks  or 
sand  flaws,  which  defects  are  occasionally  covered  up 
with  a  coating  of  coal  tar  pitch.  The  joints  in  light 
soil  pipe,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  hub,  are  sel- 
dom properly  made  so  as  to  be  able  to  withstand 
internal  pressure  when  tested. 

In  the  case  of  contract  work,  especially  in  tene- 
ments built  by  the  speculative  builder,  almost  any- 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       343 

thing-  else  but  lead  is  used  for  filling  the  space  at  each 
joint.  Putty  is  largely  stuffed  into  the  joints,  or 
cement,  mortar,  red  lead,  mixed  with  putty  and  other 
substitutes.  Occasionally  a  joint  is  filled  with  paper 
and  sand.  Possibly  a  small  amount  of  lead  is  poured 
on  top  of  such  fraudulent  joints  to  give  them  the 
appearance,  when  a  hasty  examination  takes  place, 
of  being  properly  made.  Such  examinations  of  the 
plumber's  work  were  not,  however,  carried  out  in 
tenement  houses,  owing  to  the  indifference  of  both 
owner  and  contractor.  Testing  the  pipes  and  joints 
by  water  pressure,  or  by  the  smoke  or  peppermint 
tests,  was  never  thought  of.  The  consequence  was  a 
steady  leakage  of  sewer  air  from  the  top  of  the  joint, 
and  drippings  of  sewage  at  its  bottom. 

Branch  drains  were  connected  to  the  main  house 
drain  with  right-angled  junctions,  causing  eddies  and 
deposits  in  the  pipes.  The  junction  between  soil 
pipes  or  upright  waste  pipes  and  the  drain  in  the  cel- 
lar was  equally  defective.  Sometimes  the  horizontal 
drain  settled  away  from  the  upright  pipe,  and  through 
the  large  aperture  between  both  pipes  sewage  matter 
was  poured  on  to  the  ground,  instead  of  being  carried 
away  in  the  pipes. 

What  I  have  said  of  imperfect  joints  in  the  horizon- 
tal iron  drain  pipes  is  equally  true  of  upright  soil  and 
waste  pipes.  There  are  few,  if  any,  soil  pipe  stacks 
in  older  tenement  houses  which  are  not  defective  in 
material  as  well  as  in  workmanship.  In  buildings 
erected  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  it  is  common  to 


344  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

find  lead  pipe  used  for  large  soil  and  waste  pipes. 
This  material  is  equally,  or  even  more,  objectionable 
than  the  common  light  iron  soil  pipe.  Lead  pipes 
are  soon  corroded  and  honeycombed  by  the  action  of 
putrid  soil  pipe  gases ;  moreover,  they  are  apt  to  sag 
and  settle  on  account  of  their  weight,  and  they  are 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  having  nails  driven  through 
them,  a  frequent  cause  of  unexplained  bad  odors  in 
older  houses.  The  corrosive  action  on  lead  pipes  is 
aggravated  by  the  entire  lack  of  ventilation  of  lead 
soil  pipes  in  buildings  erected  thirty  years  or  more 
ago.  Such  is  equally  true,  however,  of  iron  soil  and 
waste  pipes,  and  of  the  smaller  lead  and  iron  branches. 
The  writer  has  been  shown  in  a  plumber's  shop,  cast 
iron  plumber's  soil  pipe  which  had  been  in  a  building 
about  seven  years,  corroded  and  perforated  with 
numerous  holes  on  account  of  stagnation  of  sewer 
air  in  the  soil  pipe. 

In  tenements  of  more  recent  date  an  attempt  to 
ventilate  the  soil  pipe  was  occasionally  made  by  run- 
ning a  small  air  pipe  up  to  and  through  the  roof.  Of 
course  such  a  small  opening  on  the  roof  was  of  little 
use,  unless  a  second  opening  at  the  foot  of  the  house 
sewer  was  provided.  Even  if  this  is  arranged,  small 
pipes  are  insufficient,  especially  in  winter  time  when 
they  close  up  completely  from  hoar-frost.  The  soil 
pipe  ought  to  be  extended  at  least  full  size  through 
the  roof.  Such  vent  pipe  extensions  were  often  run 
with  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  tin  pipes,  both  of  which 
are  materials  which  are  absolutely  inadmissible  for 
such  purpose  in  good  work. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       345 

To  locate  the  soil  pipe  top  near  attic  windows  or 
near  ventilating  shafts  or  chimney  tops  is  another 
error  of  construction  which  causes  at  times  sewer  air 
to  return  through  these  channels  into  a  building. 
Smaller  waste  pipes,  if  run  through  the  roof,  are  often 
found  clogged  in  winter  time  through  snow  or  hoar- 
frost. No  pipe  extension  through  the  roof  should, 
therefore,  be  less  than  four  inches  in  diameter. 

The  top  of  soil  or  waste  pipes,  if  extended  through 
the  roof,  was  generally  covered  with  a  ''ventilating" 
cap  (probably  called  thus — lucus  a  non  lucendo — 
because  it  does  not  help  to  ventilate),  or  with  a  return 
bend.  The  object  of  these  contrivances  was  to  prevent 
any  malicious  choking  of  soil  pipes  through  stones  or 
other  articles  which  mischievous  children  of  a  tene- 
ment house  population  are  very  apt  to  throw  into  the 
pipes.  There  is  no  doubt  that  an  open-mouthed  soil 
pipe  acts  more  efficiently  than  a  pipe  covered  with  a 
cowl  or  cap.  Wherever  possible,  pipe  extensions  in 
tenement  houses  should  be  run  at  least  seven  feet 
above  the  roof,  the  mouth  being  then  left  entirely 
open.  Wherever  this  cannot  be  done  a  copper  wire 
basket  on  top  of  the  pipe  will  prevent  the  throwing 
in  of  larger  articles,  or  else  some  of  the  simpler  forms 
of  cowls  may  be  used  ;  all  of  these  being  preferable 
to  the  return  bend,  which  greatly  impedes  venti- 
lation. 

The  foot  opening,  commonly  called  fresh-air  inlet, 
is  not  found  in  any  but  the  most  recently  built  tene- 
ment houses.  Occasionally  a  reversed  current  occurs 


346  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

at  such  inlet,  and  a  puff  of  "  sewer  gas  "  is  driven  out 
at  the  opening.  It  must,  therefore,  in  order  to  be  in- 
offensive, be  located  away  from  windows.  But  for  the 
danger  of  its  clogging  in  winter  time  through  snow 
and  ice,  it  would  be  best  to  run  the  fresh-air  pipe 
to  a  catch-basin  at  the  curb,  covered  with  an  air  grat- 
ing. Wherever  there  is  a  strip  of  parking  between 
the  building  and  the  sidewalk,  a  manhole  may  be 
built  in  which  the  trap  is  placed  and  the  fresh-air  pipe 
may  terminate  in  this  manhole,  which  may  be  cov- 
ered with  an  open  grating  to  admit  the  outer  air. 
Instead  of  a  manhole  an  inspection  shaft  is  occasion- 
ally built  of  glazed  terra  cotta  pipes  covered  with  an 
open  grating. 

The  smaller  branch  waste  pipes,  overflow  pipes  and 
drip  pipes  will  be  discussed  later  on  together  with  the 
plumbing  fixtures. 

Leader  or  rainwater  pipes  should  not,  if  inside  a 
building  be  made  of  sheet  metal,  and  they  should  not, 
as  is  often  the  case  with  tenement  houses,  serve  as  soil 
pipes  or  as  vents  for  soil  pipes. 

Pipes  for  yard  drainage  should  be  of  proper  size  to 
remove  the  rainwater  falling  on  yards,  and  should 
join  the  main  house  sewer  by  proper  Y  branches. 

Often  the  house  sewer  has  a  branch  running  to  a 
gully  located  in  the  cellar  floor,  intended  to  remove 
cellar  water.  Such  an  opening  from  the  main  house 
sewer  into  the  cellar  is  decidedly  objectionable  and 
there  is  rarely  a  necessity  for  it.  It  is  often  the  cause 
of  the  flooding  of  cellars  where  sewers  are  gorged  by 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       347 

storm-water  or  where  the  tide  backs  up  into  the  house 
drain.  The  foul  deposit  left  and  spread  in  such  cases 
on  the  cellar  floor  may*  become  the  cause  of  serious 
disease  in  tenements. 

Drain  pipes,  if  such  are  used  for  the  drainage  of  the 
sub-soil  of  tenement  houses,  consist  commonly  of 
what  are  called  "blind  drains,"  these  being  trenches 
dug  with  some  fall  and  filled  with  loose  broken  stones 
along  or  under  the  foundation  walls.  They  generally 
connect  with  the  house  sewer,  and  even  if  trapped 
cause  the  sewer  air  to  enter  the  cellar  in  periods  of 
drought.  There  must  always  be  a  thorough  discon- 
nection between  such  drains  and  the  house  sewer. 
Defects  of  Trapping. 

Wherever  there  is  an  opening  in  the  drainage  sys- 
tem inside  a  dwelling,  a  barrier  or  water-dam  is,  or 
should  be,  placed  on  the  line  of  the  waste  pipe  to  pre- 
vent gases  of  decomposition  from  entering  through 
such  an  opening.  Such  barriers  are  called  "  traps." 
Defective  trapping  of  drains  and  fixtures  is,  next  to 
defective  pipes  and  joints,  the  most  frequent  cause  of 
the  entrance  of  sewer  air  into  tenement  houses. 

The  most  serious  defect  is  the  entire  absence  of 
traps  under  fixtures,  caused  either  by  criminal  care- 
lessness or  stupidity  of  mechanics,  or  else  through 
equally  criminal  intention  of  "skin"  builders  or  con- 
tractors. I  do  not  refer  in  this  connection  to  special 
systems  of  soil  pipe  ventilation  with  induced  down- 
ward currents  through  trapless  fixtures  and  into  the 
pipes,  though  these  systems  cannot,  in  my  opinion, 


348  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

be  considered  reliable  at  all  times.  They  are  certainly 
entirely  inapplicable  to  the  drainage  of  tenement 
houses. 

Not  less  defective  is  a  method  of  trapping  fre- 
quently found  in  older  buildings  by  placing  one  large 
trap  at  the  foot  of  the  soil  pipe  serving  for  a  number 
of  plumbing  fixtures  on  different  stories.  A  little  re- 
flection must  convince  any  one  that  enough  sewer  air 
is  created  in  the  soil  pipe  stack,  in  the  branch  waste 
pipes  and  in  the  overflow  pipes  which  are  then  in 
open  communication  with  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing, to  cause  serious  sickness. 

It  is  still  more  common  to  find  several  fixtures  on 
one  floor  and  close  together,  trapped  by  only  one  trap 
(for  instance,  a  water  closet  trap),  into  which  the 
wastes  from  the  bathtub  or  the  sink,  if  this  is  near  by, 
are  run  below  the  water  line.  A  slight  sagging  or 
displacement  of  the  trap  is  sufficient  to  render  the 
trapping  ineffective.  What  is,  in  such  case,  to  pre- 
vent putrid  gases  from  the  water  closet  container 
from  escaping  at  the  bath  or  sink  ?  On  the  other 
hand,  the  contents  of  the  water  closet  trap  are  apt  to 
back  up  a  long  distance  in  the  bath  waste,  keeping  it 
continually  foul  and  allowing  the  impure  water  to 
evaporate  at  the  opening  in  the  bathtub. 

In  recently  built  tenement  houses  we  may  find  a 
separate  trap  under  each  water  closet,  sink  or  tub. 
But  here  is  not  the  end  of  defects.  The  sink  trap  is 
usually  a  bell-trap  in  combination  with  a  loose  strainer 
in  the  bottom  of  the  sink.  Bell-traps  are  the  worst 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       349 

possible  devices  for  trapping  the  waste  pipes  of  sinks. 
Their  seal  is  always  quite  insufficient,  they  easily 
choke,  and  what  is  worse,  in  cleaning  the  sink  the 
loose  strainer  is  readily  lifted  and  all  sorts  of  rubbish 
is  brushed  into  the  waste  pipe,  which  is  thus  stopped 
up  at  frequent  intervals.  As  long  as  the  strainer  is 
removed  soil  pipe  gases  will  find  their  way  into  the 
kitchen.  At  times  such  strainers  are  not  even  re- 
placed or  else  they  may  be  lost  and  entirely  forgotten. 
The  tenants,  who  are  almost  always  ignorant  in  re- 
gard to  such  subjects,  will  then  be  constantly  com- 
pelled to  breathe  sewer  air  and,  with  unventilated 
soil  pipes  and  untrapped  connections  to  foul  street 
sewers,  the  tenements  are  literally  turned  into  ''hot- 
beds of  disease."  To  realize  the  possible  conse- 
quences of  such  defective  sink  arrangements  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  in  tenement  houses  the  kitchen 
usually  serves  as  a  living  room,  and  not  unfrequently 
as  a  bedroom.  Can  we  then  wonder  at  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  scarlet  fever  or  diphtheria  with  children 
sleeping  in  such  pest-holes  ? 

A  few  tenements  have  possibly  an  unvented  S-trap 
under  the  sink.  This  too  is  open  to  severe  objections. 
If  a  discharge  from  a  sink  or  water  closet  of  an  upper 
story  occurs,  the  rush  of  water  past  the  sink  waste  con- 
nection may  create  sufficient  suction  to  remove  a  part 
or  all  of  the  water  in  the  S-trap  by  siphonage,  leaving 
the  opening  in  the  sink  unprotected  against  soil  pipe 
gases.  If  the  vertical  wraste  pipes  are  not  extended 
through  the  roof,  back-pressure  in  the  pipes  often 


35O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

forces  bubbles  of  noxious  gases  through  the  water- 
seal  of  the  S-trap,  which  rarely  exceeds  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  depth.  Furthermore,  with  unventilated 
soil  and  waste  pipes,  the  water  in  traps  constantly 
absorbs  gases  which  are  afterwards  given  off  at  the 
house  side  of  the  trap.  Occasionally  a  sink  or  tub  is 
not  used  in  an  empty  tenement  for  a  long  period  of 
time,  and  as  the  water  in  the  traps  is  subject  to  con- 
stant evaporation,  a  passage  is  soon  opened  for  the 
entrance  of  the  deadly  gas,  which  saturates  walls, 
ceilings  and  floors,  and  greets  the  new  tenant  when 
he  moves  in  with  its  faint,  peculiarly  musty  odor. 

In  the  cheapest  sort  of  tenement  houses  the  water 
closets  are  sometimes  left  entirely  untrapped,  or  else 
there  is  but  one  trap  at  the  foot  of  the  soil  pipe  meant 
to  serve  for  all  closets  on  that  stack.  The  pipe  itself 
is,  as  described  before,  generally  unventilated.  Asa 
result  sewer  air  continually  enters  the  tenements,  and 
this  condition  of  things  occurs  occasionally  where  the 
water  closets  are  placed  in  a  bedroom  or  in  a  small 
closet  adjoining  a  sleeping  apartment.  It  is  no  exag- 
geration to  say  that  the  man  who  is  guilty  of  deliber- 
ately putting  in  such  construction  is  committing  mur- 
der or  manslaughter,  and  should  be  tried  in  the  courts 
for  this  offense.  The  atmosphere  is  seldom  better  if 
the  water  closets  are  placed  in  some  dark,  unventi- 
lated place  in  the  staircase  hall.  The  rooms  are  in 
close  communication  with  the  hall,  and  as  this  has 
usually  no  ventilation  whatever,  the  atmosphere  of 
the  room  is  poisoned  by  degrees. 


SANITATY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       351 

Should  the  water  closet  have  a  trap  it  is  in  old 
houses  of  the  D  shape,  which  is  readily  converted  by 
use  into  a  receptacle  of  filth.  Where  S-traps  are  used 
they  are  nearly  always  unprotected  against  siphon- 
age,  loss  of  seal  by  momentum,  back  pressure  and 
absorption  of  gases. 

Some  of  the  better  class  of  tenements  have  bath- 
tubs, washbowls  or  laundry  tubs.  The  wastes  from 
bathtubs  or  bowls  are  either  untrapped  or  trapped 
by  an  unventilated  running  trap,  which  is  quickly 
siphoned.  The  overflow  pipe  is  often  connected  to 
the  waste  pipe  beyond  the  trap.  Laundry  tubs  show 
the  same  defects. 

Drip  pipes  to  remove  water  from  "  safes  "  in  case  of 
leakage  or  overflow  are  generally  directly  connected 
to  the  soil  or  waste  pipes.  Sometimes  they  are 
trapped,  but  the  water  in  such  a  trap  readily  evapo- 
rates, leaving  an  open  passage  for  gases.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  therefore  equally  unreliable. 

A  further  serious  defect  is  the  absence  of  a  trap  on 
the  main  drain.  If  the  tenement  sewer  is  untrapped, 
the  pipes  within  the  building  are  filled  not  only  with 
gases  of  decomposition  due  to  organic  matter  attach- 
ing to  the  inside  of  soil  and  waste  pipes,  but  the  gases 
from  the  street  sewer  also  enter  the  house  pipes.  The 
conditions  are  infinitely  worse  if  the  tenement  sewer 
discharges  into  a  cesspool.  Unventilated  soil  pipes 
thus  become  a  perfect  reservoir  holding  sewer  air,  and 
the  latter  is  constantly  passing  into  the  living  rooms. 
This  condition  of  affairs  accounts  for  the  overwhelm- 


352  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ing  stench  and  nauseating  odor  pervading  some  tene- 
ments from  cellar  to  attic.  Drains  of  older  buildings 
are  sometimes  cut  off  from  the  sewer  or  cesspool  by 
a  large  brick  trap,  generally  known  as  a  "  mason's  or 
cesspool  trap."  This  soon  accumulates  filth,  and  is 
extremely  objectionable  on  this  account. 

There  is  often  a  gully  in  the  cellar  floor  to  remove 
water  from  the  cellar,  and  this  is  generally  trapped 
by  a  bell-trap,  the  defects  of  which  have  been  ex- 
plained heretofore.  But  even  where  an  S-trap  is 
used,  evaporation  soon  destroys  its  water-seal,  and 
noxious  sewer  air  freely  enters  the  cellar.  Such  open- 
ings from  the  drain  in  the  cellar  floor  are  extremely 
objectionable  in  all  buildings,  and  should  never  be 
permitted  in  tenement  houses. 

The  yard  drains  for  removal  of  surface  water  are 
generally  trapped  by  a  "  cesspool  "  trap,  which  is  a 
bell-trap  similar  to  the  trap  in  the  cellar  floor.  This 
freezes  in  winter  time  or  clogs  from  dirt,  and  creates 
in  both  cases  an  intolerable  nuisance  in  the  yard.  In 
summer  time  its  water  evaporates  and  the  children 
of  the  tenement  house  population,  when  playing  in 
the  yard,  are  compelled  to  breathe  sewer  air  even 
when  they  are  out-of-doors.  Bad  odors  are  frequently 
carried  into  basement  rooms,  owing  to  foul  and  un- 
trapped  yard  drains.  Untrapped  leaders  are  fully  as 
bad  in  this  respect,  and  the  ordinary  seal  of  an  S-trap 
often  has  not  sufficient  resistance  against  evaporation 
during  periods  of  draught,  if  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
a  rainwater  stack. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       353 

Defects  as  Regards  Fixtures. 

Plumbing-  in  tenement  houses  is  usually  restricted 
to  water  closets  and  kitchen  sinks.  Occasionally  a 
sink  or  slop  hopper  is  placed  in  the  staircase  hall  for 
the  common  use  of  all  families  on  each  floor.  It  is 
not  often  that  laundry  tubs  are  fitted  up  ;  the  com- 
mon portable  washtubs  are  in  general  use,  and  are 
emptied  into  the  sink  in  the  kitchen.  A  bathtub  in 
a  tenement,  although  very  desirable  on  the  score  of 
cleanliness  and  health,  is  looked  upon  as  a  luxury, 
and  is  only  fitted  up  in  the  higher-priced  tenements. 

Fixtures  are  often  scattered  about  in  tenements 
instead  of  being  placed  in  vertical  groups.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  a  large  number  of  branch  waste  pipes 
are  run  between  floors  to  the  distant  soil  pipe,  gen- 
erally without  any  fall,  and  almost  always  with  sags 
and  bends  in  the  pipe,  caused  by  insufficient  support 
of  the  pipes,  and  likewise  from  the  effects  of  the  con- 
traction and  expansion  through  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  plumbing  work  is 
usually  such  as  to  make  a- thorough  sanitary  inspec- 
tion very  difficult.  This  is  true  not  only  as  regards 
the  fixtures,  but  also  as  regards  the  traps  and  the 
pipes.  It  is  the  result  of  the  pernicious  tendency  to 
bury  as  much  of  the  plumbing  as  possible  out  of 
sight.  To  quote  from  a  paper  on  "  House  Inspec- 
tion," by  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin,  of  Edinburgh  : 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  to  investigate  the  sanitary  fittings  of 
a  house  thoroughly,  it  would  be  necessary  to  rip  up  floors,  tear  down 
paneling,  break  open  plaster  and  lift  the  pavement  of  the  ground 


354  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

floor.  .  .  .  With  a  more  rational  system  of  arranging  the  plumb- 
ing work  in  a  house,  the  pipes  could  be  readily  inspected  without 
this  demolition,  and  it  is  heartily  to  be  desired  that  architects  should 
give  their  minds  to  arranging  every  pipe  so  that  every  yard  of  it  can 
be  seen  with  little  trouble,  and  repaired  without  inconvenience. 
.  .  .  The  first  principle  an  engineer  is  taught  in  the  drawing 
office  is  this:  every  part  of  a  machine  must  be  readily  accessible  for 
inspection  and  repair.  The  water  and  drain  systems  of  a  house  con- 
stitute a  large  and  complex  system,  but  architects  and  builders  have 
sadly  neglected  this  condition  of  accessibility. 

The  sink,  which  is  always  placed  in  the  kitchen,  is 
usually  enclosed  with  tight  woodwork.  The  space 
underneath  the  sink  is  used  for  the  storage  of  all 
kinds  of  rags,  musty  shoes,  dirty  towels  and  other 
filthy  matters,  and  an  indescribable  odor  is  escaping 
from  such  never-aired  enclosure,  as  well  as  from  the 
sink  itself,  which,  as  mentioned  above,  is  rarely  prop- 
erly trapped.  Large  tenement  house  families  use  the 
kitchen  not  only  as  a  living  and  dining  room,  but 
also  as  a  laundry,  and  frequently  as  a  bedroom,  and 
with  the  usual  absence  of  any  ventilation,  the  atmos- 
phere of  such  a  tenement  house  kitchen — a  pestifer- 
ous mixture  of  noxious  gases  from  the  drains,  foul 
vapors  from  boiling  of  soiled  linen,  odors  from  cook- 
ing, and  exhalations  of  filthy  bedding — is  such  as  to 
completely  overpower  the  organs  of  smell  of  any 
casual  visitor. 

However,  the  atmosphere  in  the  water  closet  apart- 
ment is  something  infinitely  worse.  This  is  due 
largely,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  bad  manner  of  trap- 
ping the  closets.  But  the  apparatus  is  in  itself  cause 
enough  for  the  bad  odors.  Water  closets  in  tene- 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       355 

ment  houses  are,  with  rare  exceptions,  either  pan 
closets  or  bad  hopper  closets.  So  much  has  been 
said  about  the  utter  worthlessness  of  pan  closets  for 
all  purposes,  that  I  may  well  omit  to  mention  their 
faults.  They  are  retainers  and  containers  of  human 
filth,  and  should  not  be  tolerated  in  any  place  in- 
tended to  shelter  human  beings. 

There  are  good  and  bad  hopper  closets.  As  the 
latter  are,  unfortunately,  the  cheaper  ones,  they  are 
preferred  by  most  builders  of  tenement  houses. 
They  become  extremely  filthy  and  disgusting  in  ap- 
pearance, owing  largely  to  the  improper  method  of 
flushing  directly  from  the  supply  pipes,  and  further- 
more, owing  to  the  often  insufficient  water  supply. 
For  it  frequently  happens  that  the  water  pressure  in 
the  mains  is  so  much  reduced  as  to  allow  the  water 
to  rise  only  to  the  lower  stories,  or  the  supply  pipe  is, 
on  the  score  of  economy,  so  small  that  if  water  is 
drawn  on  a  lowrer  story,  water  does  not  run  at  any  of 
the  faucets  in  the  upper  stories.  Water  tanks  are  ex- 
tremely rare  in  tenements,  and  pumps  to  force  the 
water  up  to  them  still  more  so.  Thus  the  closets 
often  remain  without  a  flush,  and  this  is  more  liable 
to  occur  in  day-time,  when  the  closets  are  in  greatest 
use. 

A  serious  danger  to  the  water  supply  is  caused  by 
an  insufficient  pressure  in  the  supply  pipes.  For  if 
the  flush  is  started,  no  water  flows  into  the  closet 
bowl ;  there  is  often  a  strong  suction  into  the  supply 
pipes,  and  polluted  air  and  possibly  disease  germs — 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

occasionally  even  foul  matter  from  the  bowl— are 
sucked  into  the  pipes,  thus  poisoning  the  drinking 
water.  Whoever  is  in  doubt  about  any  illness  due  to 
pollution  of  water  through  such  defective  closet 
arrangement  should  read  the  report  by  Dr.  Buchanan, 
on  an  outbreak  of  enteric  fever  in  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  England.* 

There  should  be  placed  over  each  closet  or  group 
of  water  closets,  a  suitable  flushing  cistern.  Hopper 
closets,  especially,  require  such  a  flushing  cistern  with 
a  large  supply  pipe  from  the  cistern  to  the  closet 
bowl,  so  that  the  water  may  come  down  in  a  large 
quantity,  and  with  such  rush  as  effectively  to  cleanse 
the  bowl  and  expel  all  foul  matter  from  the  trap. 

Not  content  with  supplying  the  tenement  with  a 
defective  and  unsanitary  water  closet  apparatus,  the 
builder  encloses  the  fixture  with  tight  carpentry  and 
finishes  the  whole  with  a  faulty  arrrangement  of  the 
seat,  whereby  the  latter  and  the  woodwork  become 
spattered  with  slop  water  or  urine,  whenever  the 
closet  is  used  to  pour  out  chamber  slops,  or  by  men 
or  boys  as  a  urinal.  The  floor  in  the  apartment  is 
kept  continually  damp  through  such  spilling  and 
through  leakage  of  the  closet  valve.  Woodwork 
readily  absorbs  foul  liquids  and  constantly  emits  nox- 
ious odors,  which,  combined  with  the  gases  from  filth 
adhering  to  the  bowl,  and  soil  pipe  air  issuing  from 
defective  traps,  defective  joints  and  defective  drip 


*  See  reports  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council  and  Local  Government 
Board,  England,  New  Series,  No.  II.,  1874. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       357 

pipe  connections,  all  suffice  to  exert  an  unwholesome 
influence  upon  the  health  of  delicate  women  and 
children  during  even  a  short  stay  in  such  places. 

Water  closets  for  tenement  houses  are  often  placed 
in  the  cellar  of  the  building.  This  on  many  accounts 
is  very  objectionable.  The  cellar  is  usually  dark, 
damp  and  ill-ventilated.  Important  as  it  is  to  have 
water  closets  of  private  dwellings  located  in  well- 
lighted  and  well-ventilated  rooms,  it  is  imperative  to 
give  to  water  closets  in  tenements  a  proper  location. 
Darkness  in  such  a  case  is  identical  with  misuse  of 
fixtures,  uncleanliness,  general  bad  habits,  vice,  and 
even  crime.  Not  only  should  there  be  a  liberal 
water  supply  on  each  floor  of  a  tenement,  but  there 
should  be  water  closets  on  every  floor  as  well.  This 
will  greatly  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  laborers'  wives 
and  of  invalids.  Water  closets  placed  either  in  a  cel- 
lar or  in  an  out-house  in  the  yard  are  further  objec- 
tionable, as  none  of  the  tenants  will  feel  the  respon- 
sibility of  keeping  such  places  in  a  decent  condition. 
The  arrangement  might  answer  where  a  janitor  takes 
care  of  the  whole  tenement,  but  this — although  desir- 
able for  many  reasons — is  rarely  the  case. 

In  double  tenements,  with  four  families  on  eacn 
floor,  there  is  often,  owing  to  defective  planning, 
want  of  space  to  locate  the  water  closets  in  a  proper 
place.  They  are,  therefore,  placed  in  a  bedroom  or 
in  a  dark,  unventilated  closet  adjoining  it.  Such  a 
location  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  The 
diseases  believed  to  be  caused  more  or  less  directly 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

by  defective  water  closet  arrangements  are  many  and 
serious.  They  are,  first,  the  bowel  diseases,  such  as 
diarrhoea,  dysentery,  cholera  ;  then  we  have  enteric 
fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  typhus  fever  ;  further- 
more, we  have  sore  throat,  erysipelas ;  finally,  we 
have  diseases  due  to  blood  poisoning,  such  as  septi- 
caemia, pyaemia  and  a  vast  amount  of  puerperal  fever. 
But  aside  from  acute  illness,  such  wholesale  poison- 
ing of  the  air  in  bedrooms  results  in  general  debility, 
lowering  of  vitality,  frequent  headache,  nervousness, 
asphyxia,  nausea,  etc.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
human  system  has  less  resistance  to  such  evil  in- 
fluences during  sleep.  It  is,  therefore,  absolutely  in- 
admissible to  place  a  water  closet  or  any  other  plumbing 
fixture  in  any  sleeping  apartment  of  a  tenement. 

Less  dangerous,  though  not  much  better  as  regards 
cleanliness,  proper  use  and  danger  from  bad  gases,  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  water  closet — or  the  bath- 
room, if  such  is  provided — in  a  small  room  or  closet 
adjoining  the  main  staircase  hall.  The  rooms  are 
usually  dark  and  without  any  provision  for  frequent 
change  of  air.  The  unwholesome  gases,  finding  no 
other  exit,  soon  pass  into  the  staircase  hall  and  fill  the 
whole  tenement.  The  water  closet  rooms  must  either 
have  an  outside  window  or  else  they  must  receive 
light  and  air  from  a  special  light  and  air  shaft.  By 
arranging  the  closets  on  different  floors  in  vertical 
groups,  such  light  and  air  wells  can  be  constructed 
without  great  additional  outlay  of  money. 

It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  water 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.        359 

closet  shafts  should  not  be  used  to  ventilate  living  or 
bedrooms  of  a  tenement.  Less  generally  understood 
is  the  fact  that  such  air  wells,  as  usually  constructed, 
are  of  little  avail  in  establishing  a  ventilation  of  the 
water  closet  apartment.  The  air  of  the  air  shafts, 
which  are  open  only  at  the  top,  is  nearly  all  the  time  in 
a  state  of  stagnation,  and  chemical  and  microscopical 
analysis  readily  reveals  its  unwholesome  pollution. 
Ventilation  signifies  change  of  air,  i.  e.,  the  expulsion 
of  fouled  air  and  its  continuous  and  gradual  replace- 
ment by  pure  air.  To  do  this  effectually,  two  open- 
ings are  always  required.  Such  air  shafts  should 
therefore  communicate  with  the  outer  air  not  only  at 
the  top.  but  at  or  near  the  bottom  as  well.  An  effort 
has  been  made  lately  to  substitute  for  such  air  and 
light  shafts  open  courts,  at  least  for  the  better  class 
of  tenement  houses,  thus  giving  to  every  room  or 
closet  on  each  floor  a  direct  opening  to  the  outer  air. 
A  fixture  which  becomes  not  less  foul  and  ill-smell- 
ing than  a  water  closet  is  the  slop  hopper  or  slop  sink. 
It  is  sometimes  arranged  in  double  tenements,  with 
three  or  four  families  on  one  floor,  to  empty  slops  into, 
especially  \vhere  water  closets  are  located  in  the  base- 
ment or  in  the  rear  yard.  The  water  remaining  in 
the  trap  of  such  slop  hoppers  is  foul  and  it  is  dis- 
placed only  by  the  further  addition  of  foul  water. 
Moreover,  the  whole  surface  of  the  sink  becomes 
coated  with  a  filthy  slime,  and  emits  not  less  sicken- 
ing odors  than  those  from  the  water  in  the  trap.  If 
water  is  poured  down  through  one  of  the  sinks  on  the 


360  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

upper  floors,  the  traps  of  the  sinks  on  lower  floors, 
located  on  the  same  pipe  stack,  are  nearly  always 
emptied  by  siphonage,  and  the  trap  of  the  upper  sink 
loses  its  water  through  momentum.  An  opening  is 
thus  made  for  the  entrance  of  soil  pipe  air.  When- 
ever special  slop  hoppers  or  slop  sinks  are  fitted  up, 
they  must  be  constructed  similar  to  water  closets. 
They  must  be  thoroughly  trapped,  and  must  have  a 
flushing  cistern  to  thoroughly  cleanse  the  sink  and 
trap  after  each  use. 


Such  is,  briefly  stated,  the  prevalent  condition  of 
the  drainage  apparatus  in  many  tenement  houses.  A 
large  share  of  the  blame  rests  on  the  "speculative" 
builder  who  studies  not  how  to  economize,  but  how 
to  reap  the  largest  amount  of  profit  by  using  cheap 
and  worthless  materials  and  by  employing  inferior 
workmen.  A  part  of  the  responsibility  devolves  on 
the  plumber  for  taking  contracts  at  prices  at  wrhich 
he  knows  a  perfect  and  substantial  job  cannot  be 
done.  Finally,  in  not  a  few  cases  where  the  owner  is 
willing  to  pay  for  plain  but  good  plumbing,  the 
plumber's  ignorance,  or  dishonesty,  or  both,  must 
account  for  untrapped  drains,  unventilated  soil  pipes 
and  ill-arranged  fixtures. 

There  is  but  one  remedy  for  this  condition  of  affairs; 
it  is  the  thorough  inspection  by  competent  inspectors, 
employed  by  the  city  health  authorities,  of  all  build- 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       361 

ings  hereafter  erected.  Such  inspection  during  con- 
struction will  be  of  the  greatest  service  for  tenement 
houses,  the  population  of  which  is  unable,  even  if  it 
recognized  the  serious  evil,  to  help  or  protect  itself. 
Inspections  of  the  drainage  system,  however,  are  de- 
sirable for  all  classes  of  dwellings ;  first,  because 
much  of  the  work  is  of  necessity  hidden  from  view 
after  the  building  is  completed  ;  second,  because  even 
dwellings  of  the  better  class  are  rented  or  may  change 
their  owner. 

Plumbing  work  in  all  tenements  hereafter  to  be 
erected  should  be  done  according  to  some  code  or 
standard  rules  compiled  by  the  Board  of  Health  or 
sanitary  authorities.  Many  large  cities,  for  instance, 
Washington,  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Chicago,  Boston, 
Philadelphia,  and  several  smaller  cities  and  towns, 
have  such  rules  in  force,  and  the  success  of  the  sys- 
tem of  plumbing  inspection  has  been  marked  every- 
where. 

As  a  guide  in  establishing  such  rules,  the  writer 
offers  the  following 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  "  SANITARY    DRAINAGE"    OF 
TENEMENT  HOUSES. 

i.  System  of  Pipes. 

(a.)  Wherever  a  sewer  is  built  in  the  street  or  at  the  rear  of  a  lot, 
the  tenement  must  be  connected  to  such  sewer  through  a  proper  pipe 
conduit.  No  cesspool  will  be  permitted  for  the  drainage  of  such 
tenement  and  lot.  Each  tenement  house  must  have  an  independent 
sewer  connection. 

For  the  house  sewer  outside  the  building  strong  vitrified  or  cement 
pipe  should  be  used.  Iron  pipe  should  be  used  where  the  soil  is 
made  ground  or  quicksand. 


362  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Earthen  or  vitrified  pipe  must  be  perfectly  straight,  circular  and 
true  in  section,  of  uniform  thickness,  free  from  cracks  or  flaws,  hard 
burnt,  smooth  on  the  inside  and  highly  glazed. 

Cement  pipe  should  be  made  of  best  Portland  Cement,  true  in  sec- 
tion, of  a  sufficient  thickness  and  rendered  as  smooth  as  possible  on 
the  inside. 

Cast  iron  pipes  should  not  be  less  than  three-eighths  inch  thick, 
of  a  uniform  thickness,  truly  cylindrical,  of  a  homogeneous  texture, 
with  smooth  inside  surface,  free  from  flaws  or  other  defects,  and 
coated  with  coal  tar  pitch  or  an  equivalent  substance,  to  prevent 
corrosion. 

Joints  in  vitrified  pipe  and  in  cement  pipe  should  be  made  with 
pure  Portland  Cement.  Particular  care  is  required  in  filling  the  bot- 
tom part  of  the  joint  thoroughly  with  cement,  and  in  preventing  any 
cement  from  protruding  at  the  inside  of  joints. 

It  is  important  that  the  pipes,  whether  earthen,  cement  or  iron 
pipes,  should  be  firmly  bedded  in  the  trench.  Grooves  must  be  cut 
for  the  hubs  in  order  to  give  a  firm  bearing  to  the  whole  length  of 
the  pipe. 

The  house  sewer  must  be  laid  at  least  three  feet  deep  to  protect  it 
against  frost.  It  must  be  laid  in  straight  lines,  and  all  changes  of 
direction  should  be  made  with  curved  pipes  of  large  radius.  All 
branch  drains  must  join  the  main  house  sewer  by  Y  branches.  Tee 
branches  should  not  be  used  for  junctions.  If  the  house  sewer  is 
unusually  long  it  is  recommended  to  provide  manholes  as  a  means  of 
access  in  case  of  repairs  or  inspection. 

Before  refilling  the  trench  the  pipe  line  should  be  tested  by 
hydrostatic  pressure. 

For  tenement  houses  with  more  than  four  families  it  is  seldom 
safe  to  use  a  smaller  size  than  six  inches  diameter  for  the  house 
sewer,  except  where  the  tenants  can  be  relied  upon  to  use  the  plumb- 
ing fixtures  with  intelligence  and  proper  care.  In  the  latter  case  a 
four  or  five  inch  sewer  would  have  ample  capacity  and  would  prove 
to  be  more  self-cleansing. 

The  ordinary  velocity  of  flow  in  the  house  sewer  should  not  be  less 
than  three  feet  per  second,  and  a  velocity  of  four  or  4^  feet  is  desir- 
able. The  inclination  to  be  given  to  the  house  sewer  must  be  deter- 
mined accordingly.  A  six-inch  pipe  requires  an  inclination  of  i  in 
138  and  i  in  61.2  to  create  a  velocity  of  flow  in  the  pipe  of  three  and 
4^  feet  per  second  respectively.  This  is  true  supposing' the  sewer  to 
run  full  or  half  full.  As  the  ordinary  or  dry-weather  floiv  from  all 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       363 

plumbing  fixtures  in  a  tenement  is  not  at  all  likely  to  fill  a  house 
sewer  half  full,  it  is  evident  that  a  greater  inclination  than  above 
stated  is  necessary  to  prevent  deposits  in  the  pipes.  The  inclination 
should  be  calculated  with  reference  to  the  maximum  flow  of  house- 
hold waste  water  exclusive  of  storm  water. 

If  the  required  inclination  cannot  be  given  to  the  house  sewer  it  is 
extremely  desirable  that  means  for  frequent  artificial  flushing  should 
be  provided  for. 

(b.)  The  house  sewer  inside  of  the  tenement  must  be  of  heavy 
iron  pipe. 

It  should  preferably  be  carried  in  sight  along  the  cellar  wall,  sup- 
ported at  intervals  by  strong  brick  piers. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  carry  the  house  sewer  below  the  cellar 
floor,  access  holes  and  cleaning  handholes  must  be  provided  and  the 
trench  must  not  be  closed  before  the  drain  has  been  inspected. 

Cleaning  handholes  should  be  provided  near  all  junctions  with 
branch  drains  or  with  vertical  soil  and  waste  pipes,  also  at  or  near 
the  running  trap  and  near  bends. 

The  pipe  system  in  the  cellar  must  be  as  compact  and  concen- 
trated as  possible.  If  the  rainwater  is  taken  into  the  house  sewer,  it 
is  well  to  connect  leaders  with  the  upper  ends  of  the  drains,  thereby 
securing  an  occasional  thorough  scouring  to  the  whole  length  of  the 
house  sewer. 

As  to  the  size  and  inclination  of  the  house  sewer  inside  the  dwell- 
ing, the  rules  given  for  outside  drains  should  be  followed. 

No  junction  should  be  made  at  right  angles;  all  changes  in  direc- 
tion must  be  accomplished  with  Y  branches  and  45°  bends,  or  with 
90°  bends  of  large  radius. 

(f.)  Soil,  waste  and  air  pipes  inside  of  a  tenement  house  should  be 
of  heavy  iron  pipe  (with  the  exception  of  the  short  branches  from 
the  fixtures.) 

Soil  pipes,  waste  pipes  and  air  pipes  must  have  thoroughly  air  and 
water  tight  joints  and  the  pipes  must  be  of  sound  material  and  free 
from  any  defect. 

Soil  and  waste  pipes  must  always  be  arranged  as  direct  as  possible. 
Each  stack  should  run  up  perfectly  straight  where  practicable.  The 
fewer  offsets  the  stack  has  the  better.  Long  branch  wastes  under 
floors  must  be  avoided.  All  this  can  be  readily  attained  in  tenement 
houses  by  placing  the  fixtures  of  different  floors  one  above  the  other 
in  vertical  groups. 

It  is  preferable  to  keep  all  soil,  waste  and  air  pipes  in  sight.     If 


364  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

they  are  placed  in  recesses  or  in  partitions,  these  should  be  covered 
with  wooden  boards  fastened  with  screws  and  made  readily  remov- 
able. No  pipe  should  ever  be  buried  entirely  out  of  sight. 

Where  water  closets  or  bathrooms  are  located  around  a  light  and 
air  well,  it  is  to  be  recommended  to  place  the  pipes  in  this  shaft. 

Waste  pipes  for  vertical  groups  of  kitchen  sinks  in  tenements 
should  run,  wherever  practicable,  along  the  outside  of  a  heated  flue 
(kitchen  chimney),  as  this  will  induce  an  upward  draft  in  the  pipes. 

The  soil  and  waste  pipe  system  must  be  thoroughly  ventilated  and 
should  have  no  long  "  dead  ends  "  of  pipe.  Each  soil  pipe  and  each 
waste  pipe  must  extend  as  straight  as  possible,  and  at  least  full-size 
from  cellar  to  above  the  roof. 

The  extensions  above  the  roof  should  in  all  cases  be  sufficiently 
high  so  as  to  expose  the  pipe  mouths  freely  to  currents  of  air. 

Pipe  extensions  above  the  roof  must  be  located  as  remote  as  pos- 
sible from  ventilating  shafts,  chimney  flues,  ventilating  skylights,  air 
and  light  wells,  etc. 

No  pipe  extension  through  and  above  the  roof  should  be  less  than 
four  inches  in  diameter;  smaller  pipes  clog  up  in  winter  time. 

All  pipe  mouths  above  the  roof  must  be  kept  wide  open.  None  of 
the  numerous  patent  ventilators  are  as  good  as  the  open-mouthed 
pipe.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  object  of  soil  and  waste 
pipe  extensions  above  the  roof  is,  above  anything  else,  to  prevent 
stagnation  of  air  in  the  pipes.  No  violent  air  currents  are  required 
in  soil  or  waste  pipes.  Return  bends  on  top  of  a  pipe  cause  stagna- 
tion and  are  objectionable  on  this  account;  so-called  ventilating  caps 
freeze  up  and  prevent  ventilation  in  winter  time. 

To  protect  pipes  on  roofs  of  tenement  houses  from  malicious 
obstructions,  the  extensions  should  be  run  at  least  seven  feet  high 
above  the  roof. 

To  insure  a  full  circulation  of  fresh  air  through  the  pipes,  a  fresh 
air  inlet  pipe  of  four  inches  diameter,  must  be  provided  in  the  house 
drain,  preferably  located  just  inside  of  the  trap  in  the  drain,  and  its 
mouth  run  to  a  point  out  of  doors,  well  remote  from  windows. 

Soil  pipes  in  tenements  should  not  be  larger  than  five  inches  inside 
diameter,  which  size  of  pipe  will  answer  even  for  half  a  dozen  or 
more  water  closets  and  sinks. 

Vertical  waste  pipes  for  kitchen  sinks  or  tubs  need  not  be  larger 
than  two  inches  diameter;  but  where  they  receive  discharges  from 
slop  hoppers  they  should  be  made  three  inches  in  diameter. 

Each  stack  of  soil  or  waste  pipe  must  have  fittings  (Y  branches, 


half  Y  branches  or  Tee  branches)  in  proper  position  and  at  proper 
height  to  receive  the  flow  from  fixtures.  It  is  preferable  to  discharge 
each  fixture  directly  and  separately  into  the  upright  stack;  this  is 
easily  accomplished  where  the  soil  pipe  system  is  located  in  a  light 
shaft. 

Junctions  between  horizontal  branch  wastes  and  vertical  soil  pipes 
need  not  be  made  with  Y  branches;  Tee  branches,  especially  if  the 
flow  line  is  arranged  in  an  easy  curve,  are  not  objectionable,  nor  is  it 
objectionable  to  run  the  small  wastes  from  tubs  into  large  soil  pipes 
by  means  of  right-angled  connections.  An  oblique  connection  in 
the  direction  of  the  flow  is  desirable,  but  practical  considerations 
favor  a  direct  right-angled  connection  with  T-Y  fittings. 

Vertical  pipe  stacks  must  be  strongly  supported  at  the  junction 
with  the  horizontal  main  sewer  in  the  cellar  in  order  to  prevent  set- 
tlement, which  would  tend  to  loosen  the  joints  at  the  fixtures.  The 
junction  must  be  made  with  a  Y  branch  and  45°  bends  or  with  an 
elbow  fitting  of  large  radius. 

For  soil  pipes  and  vertical  stacks  of  waste  pipes  use  either  extra 
heavy  cast  iron  pipes  or  standard  wrought  iron  pipes.  Both  must 
be  efficiently  coated  after  being  highly  heated,  with  coal  tar  or 
asphalt,  or  else  they  should  be  treated  with  the  Bower-Barff,  or  a  gal- 
vanizing or  rustless  process,  to  prevent  corrosion  in  the  pipes.  Both 
cast  iron  and  wrought  iron  pipes  must  be  tested  before  use  under 
hydraulic  pressure  for  any  defects  in  the  pipes.  Both  must  be  truly 
cylindrical  and  of  a  uniform  thickness  of  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch. 
Cast  iron  pipes  must  be  especially  closely  scrutinized  for  uniformity 
of  thickness  of  shell. 

Joints  in  cast  iron  pipe  must  be  made  by  inserting  a  gasket  of 
picked  oakum  into  the  joint  and  pouring  molten  soft  lead  from  a 
large  ladle  into  the  remaining  space.  After  cooling  and  shrinking 
the  lead  must  be  thoroughly  caulked  with  caulking  tools  to  insure 
tight  joints. 

Joints  in  wrought  iron  pipe  are  made  with  screw  threads  cut 
on  the  ends  of  pipe  and  into  the  shoulder  of  fittings.  A  paste  of  red 
and  white  lead  mixed  is  used  to  act  as  a  lubricant  and  to  make  up 
for  imperfections  in  the  thread.  The  pipes  are  screwed  together  by 
means  of  chain  pipe  tongs  and  the  joints  must  be  made  as  tight  as  if 
the  pipes  were  to  carry  steam  under  pressure. 

Vertical  lines  of  air  pipe  must  be  of  heavy  cast  iron  or  of  galva- 
nized screw-jointed  wrought  iron.  Each  line  should  be  as  straight 
as  possible  and  be  at  least  two  inches  in  diameter,  increasing  at  the 


366  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

upper  floors,  as  the  height  of  the  building  increases,  to  three  and 
four  inches  diameter.  The  upper  end  of  air  pipes  is  either  run 
through  the  roof  (never  smaller  than  four  inches  in  size)  or  it  is 
branched  into  the  adjoining  soil  or  waste  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture. 

Each  vertical  line  of  air  pipe  must  have  fittings  of  proper  size  to 
connect  branch  air  pipes  to  it. 

Air  pipes  must  not  be  used  as  waste  or  overflow  pipes. 

To  run  air  pipes  into  flues  is  as  inadmissible  as  running  soil  or 
waste  pipes  to  flues.  Smaller  pipe  ends  would  stop  up  with  soot  in 
a  short  time.  Soil  pipe  gases  are  gradually  absorbed  by  the  porous 
bricks.  If  the  flue  ventilates  any  room,  or  if  it  is  a  chimney  flue, 
there  may  be  at  times  down  drafts,  carrying  soil  pipe  air  into  the 
rooms. 

No  flue  of  sheet  metal,  earthenware  or  brick  should  be  used  for 
ventilation  of  soil  pipes,  waste  pipes,  drain  pipes  or  for  trap  ventilation. 

No  soil  or  waste  pipe  in  a  tenement  house  should  be  used  as  a 
leader. 

No  soil,  waste  or  air  pipe  system  in  a  tenement  house  should  be 
accepted  as  completed  before  its  tightness  has  been  tested  by  the 
water  pressure,  peppermint,  smoke  test  or  test  by  a  force  pump  and 
manometer.  If  the  joints  do  not  leak  under  a  severe  pressure  test 
the  system  of  pipes  may  be  considered  safe  against  entrances  of 
sewer  air. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  keep  a  plan  of  all  drain  pipes,  junctions, 
branches,  traps,  access  holes,  etc.,  as  a  guide  in  case  of  future  exam- 
inations or  repairs.* 

(d.}  Short  branch  wastes,  from  the  fixtures  to  the  soil,  waste  or  air 
pipes,  should  be  of  galvanized  wrought  iron  or  of  lead  pipe.  Branch 
wastes  should  always  be  as  short  and  direct  as  possible,  and  as  little 
as  practicable  of  the  pipe  should  be  hidden  under  floors.  If  running 
under  floors,  horizontal  lead  pipes  must  be  continuously  supported  to 
prevent  sagging. 

Connections  of  lead  pipe  with  cast  iron  or  wrought  iron  pipe  stacks 
should  be  made  with  brass  ferrules,  connected  to  the  lead  pipe  with 
wiped  joints  and  caulked  or  screwed  tightly  into  the  iron  pipe. 

*  It  is  not  practical  in  the  climates  of  our  Northern  States  to  locate  soil  pipes,  as  is  commonly 
done  in  England,  outside  of  the  house  walls. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  discharge  basin,  tub  and  sink  wastes  over  an  open  gully  or  grating  in  the 
cellar,  as  is  recommended  in  English  plumbing  regulations. 

It  is  also  perfectly  proper  to  connect  basin,  tub  or  sink  wastes  to  a  soil  pipe,  if  such  is  near 
and  convenient.  A  special  waste  pipe  is  arranged  in  American  plumbing,  not  for  the  sake  of 
keeping  the  tubs  or  sink  wastes  separate  from  the  water  closet  wastes,  but  in  order  to  render  the 
horizontal  branch  wastes  as  short  as  possible  and  to  avoid  cutting  of  beams. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       367 

Joints  in  lead  pipe  should  always  be  wiped  joints  except  joints 
between  fixtures  and  traps,  which  may  be  cup  joints. 

Branch  waste  pipes  of  lead  should  be  of  the  following  sizes  : 

For  a  kitchen  sink,  i£  or  2    inches  diameter. 

"  bathtub,  i|  or  2 

"  basin,  i|  or  i|  " 

"  set  of  laundry  tubs,  2  " 

"  slop  sink,  2    or  3  " 

The  weight  of  lead  pipes  should  be  at  least: 
2    Ibs.  for  i|-inch  pipe. 

3*  "  i*-  " 

5  "  2  -  " 

6  ••  3  -  " 
8  "  4  -  " 

Overflow  pipes  for  fixtures  must  be  as  short  as  possible,  and  should 
either  join  the  waste  pipe  between  the  fixture  and  its  trap  or  dis- 
charge into  the  trap  below  its  dip,  or  else  they  must  be  disconnected 
and  discharged  over  a  safe  pan. 

Overflow  pipes  from  water  closet  cisterns  may  discharge  into  the 
water  closet  bowl. 

Overflow  pipes  from  drinking  water  tanks  must  never  have  any 
connection  with  a  drain  or  soil  pipe.  They  should  discharge  into  a 
gutter  of  the  roof  or  else  over  an  open  sink  in  the  basement. 

Drip  pipes  for  "  safes  "  under  fixtures  should  not  have  any  connec- 
tion whatever  with  any  soil  or  waste  pipe  or  the  house  sewer.  They 
should  be  run  independently,  as  straight  as  possible,  to  the  basement, 
where  they  should  discharge  over  an  open  sink  so  that  any  leakage 
may  be  at  once  discovered. 

Refrigerator  wastes  must  never  be  connected  directly  to  any  waste, 
soil  or  sewer  pipe.  They  should  empty  over  an  open  sink,  cup  or 
pan  with  thoroughly  trapped  connection  to  the  soil  or  waste  pipe  sys- 
tem, and  this  connecting  pipe  should  be  provided  with  a  stop  cock 
to  shut  it  off  in  case  the  refrigerator  is  put  out  of  use. 

(e.)  Vertical  pipes  for  the  removal  of  storm  water  from  roofs 
(leaders  or  conductors)  must  be  of  cast  iron  or  preferably  asphalted 
or  galvanized  wrought  iron,  if  put  inside  a  dwelling,  and  must  have 
thoroughly  tight  joints.  If  located  outside  they  may  be  of  metal 
(copper,  tin  or  galvanized  sheet  iron).  Upright  leaders  should  not 
be  less  than  three  inches  diameter  (except  for  roofs  of  very  small 
sheds),  and  their  size  must  be  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  roof 
water  to  be  removed. 


368  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Rain  leaders  in  tenement  houses  should  not  be  used  as  soil  or 
waste  pipes. 

Unless  the  rainwater  is  to  be  collected  for  storage  in  cisterns,  or 
unless  the  rainfall  is  excluded  from  the  city  sewers  (as  in  the  separate 
system  of  sewerage),  it  should  be  discharged  into  the  house  sewer 
and  some  of  it  preferably  at  its  upper  ends. 

Pipes  for  the  removal  of  storm  water  from  courtyards  and  paved 
areas  (yard  and  area  drains)  should  not  be  less  than  three  inches  in 
diameter,  their  size  being  proportioned  to  the  area  to  be  drained. 
They  should  be  taken  into  the  cellar  by  the  most  direct  route,  and 
should  join  the  leader  pipes  or  the  house  sewer. 

Sub-soil  water  must  be  removed  by  drain  pipes  (common  tile 
drains)  laid  at  a  sufficient  depth  below  the  cellar  floor.  Tiles  of  ij 
or  two  inches  diameter  are  generally  quite  sufficient  for  this  pur- 
pose. They  should  be  laid  with  open  joints  well  wrapped  with  tarred 
paper  or  strips  of  cotton.  They  are  generally  run  in  parallel  lines 
their  distance  depending  on  the  character  of  the  ground.  Such 
sub-soil  drains  for  tenement  houses  in  cities  must  never  have  a  direct 
connection  with  the  house  sewer  or  any  of  its  branches. 

2.  System  of  Trapping. 

(a.)  The  main  house  sewer  for  a  tenement  house  should  be  trapped 
before  entering  the  street  sewer*  or  before  discharging  into  a  cess- 
pool (in  places  having  no  sewers).  No  connection  with  the  house 
sewer  should  be  made  on  the  street  side  of  the  main  trap.  The  old 
so-called  cesspool,  or  mason's  trap,  is  highly  objectionable.  The  best 
drain  trap  is  the  inverted  siphon  or  running  trap.  If  located  outside 
the  house,  it  may  be  of  cast  iron  or  of  earthenware.  If  located  inside 
the  house  walls,  it  should  be  of  cast  iron. 

This  trap  must  always  be  accessible  to  remove  obstructions.  If 
placed  outside  it  may  be  located  in  a  manhole.  The  trap  must 
always  be  placed  in  a  position  where  it  is  not  exposed  to  the  danger 
of  freezing.  It  should  have  large  cleaning  handholes,  but  the  great- 
est care  must  be  taken,  if  the  trap  is  placed  in  the  cellar,  that  the 
handholes  are  hermetically  closed  with  proper  brass  screw  covers. 

It  is  recommended  to  run  into  the  main  trap,  where  practicable,  a 
front  leader,  to  give  it  a  thorough  scouring  at  each  rainfall. 


*  In  cases  where  a  city,  town  or  village  constructs  an  entirely  new  sewer  system,  according  to 
a  well-devised  and  uniform  plan,  it  maybe  possible  to  dispense  with  the  trap  on  the  main  drain 
provided  the  drainage  of  all  hoiises  is  subject  to  the  inspection  and  carried  out  according  to 
proper  rules  of  the  city  authorities. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       369 

(<£.)  Leader  pipes  must  be  trapped  only  in  case  the  top  opens  below 
or  near  attic  windows  or  near  flues  or  ventilating  shafts,  and  when 
the  leaders  are  made  of  metal  with  slip  joints  and  pass  near  windows 
of  living  or  sleeping  rooms. 

Iron  leaders,  with  tight  joints,  the  tops  of  which  are  remote  from 
windows,  flues,  ventilating  shafts,  etc.,  should  not  be  trapped. 

It  is  preferable  not  to  trap  leaders,  but  if  a  trap  is  required,  it 
should  have  a  very  deep  seal,  not  readily  lost  by  evaporation.  The 
common  traps  in  the  market  are  entirely  insufficient  for  such  pur- 
pose. Great  care  must  be  taken  to  place  the  trap  out  of  reach  of  the 
frost.  It  is  to  be  recommended  to  place  the  traps  for  leaders  inside 
the  cellar  walls,  and  just  before  the  connection  with  the  house  sewer; 
the  trap  to  be  an  inverted  siphon  or  S-trap. 

Yard  and  area  drains  must  always  be  properly  trapped.  Bell- traps 
in  yard  cesspools  (gullies)  are  entirely  insufficient  and  highly  objec- 
tionable. The  trap  should  have  a  deep  seal  to  provide  against  evap- 
oration, and  must  be  located  out  of  reach  of  frost.  The  same 
arrangement  as  for  leader  traps  is  recommended. 

Drains  to  remove  sub-soil  water  must  be  thoroughly  disconnected 
from  the  main  house  sewer  by  a  trap  with  very  deep  seal,  or  by  a 
gravel  trap,  or  a  ball-valve  trap. 

(c.)  There  must  not  be  a  trap  at  the  foot  of  any  soil  or  waste  pipe 
stack,  nor  any  other  trap  between  the  trap  on  the  main  drain  and  the 
trap  under  the  fixture,  which  would  interfere  with  a  proper  circu- 
lation of  air  through  drain  and  soil  pipes. 

All  branch  waste  pipes  connected  to  the  soil  pipe  system  must  be 
provided,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  outlet  of  the  fixture,  with  a  suit- 
able trap,  secure  against  back  pressure,  siphonage,  evaporation  or 
absorption  of  gases. 

Overflow  pipes  must  be  connected  to  the  waste  pipe  on  the  inlet 
side  of  the  trap,  or  below  its  water  level,  or  else  they  must  be  discon- 
nected from  the  waste  pipe  system.  A  separate  trapping  of  an  over- 
flow pipe,  connected  directly  to  a  soil  or  waste  pipe,  is  not  to  be  relied 
upon,  as  the  seal  may  often  be  lost  by  evaporation.  The  same  is 
true  of  drip  pipes  for  "safes,"  and  of  refrigerator  wastes. 

The  junction  between  trap  and  waste  pipe  must  be  made  with 
great  thoroughness  and  of  great  strength,  and  so  as  not  to  be  affected 
by  any  settlement  of  the  floor. 

The  junction  between  the  fixture  and  the  trap  should  preferably 
be  made  movable,  at  least  under  sinks  and  tubs,  to  facilitate  repairs 
of  the  fixture. 


37O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

All  traps  should  be  placed  as  close  to  the  fixture  as  possible. 

(d.)  Traps  for  water  closets  should  not  have  a  larger  depth  of  seal 
than  1 1  or  two  inches;  traps  for  bowls,  sinks  and  tubs  may  with 
advantage  have  a  larger  water  seal. 

Traps  should  be  self-cleansing,  and  free  from  corners  or  spaces 
which  favor  accumulation  of  filth. 

Traps  should  hold  as  little  water  in  volume  as  possible,  so  that  the 
contents  of  the  trap  may  be  changed  each  time  a  fixture  is  used. 
Traps  should  never  be  larger  in  size  than  the  waste  pipe  to  which 
they  are  attached.  It  is  preferable  to  have  the  house  side  of  the  trap 
funnel-shaped,  as  this  increases  the  scouring  action  of  the  flush. 

Cleaning  screws  or  access  holes  of  traps  should  be  arranged  below 
the  water  seal  of  the  trap. 

Neither  bell-traps  nor  D-traps  should  be  used  anywhere  in  the 
drainage  system. 

Round  pipe  siphon  traps — S,  P  and  running  traps — are  the  most 
self-cleansing  traps.  If  used  under  water  closets,  slop  hoppers,  wash- 
tubs  and  bathtubs,  they  must  be  protected  against  siphonage  by  an  air 
pipe,  preferably  of  the  full  bore  of  the  trap  (except  for  water  closets), 
and  taken  from  its  sewer  side  and  near  its  crown,  and  connected  to 
the  main  vertical  air  pipe. 

For  kitchen  sinks  or  wash  basins,  placed  vertically  above  each 
other,  the  danger  from  siphonage  is  not  great;  but  even  here  an  air 
pipe  from  the  crown  of  the  trap  may  be  required,  especially  if  por- 
table washtubs  are  likely  to  be  emptied  out  into  the  sinks.  A  good 
non-siphoning  trap  is  preferable  to  the  S-trap,  and  the  trap  vent  pipe 
can  then  be  dispensed  with,  though  the  waste  pipe  must  always  be 
extended  through  the  roof. 

Where  fixtures  remain  out  of  use  for  some  length  of  time,  as  on 
unoccupied  floors  of  tenements,  it  may  be  better  to  use  a  trap  with 
deep  seal,  or  a  non-siphoning  trap. 

(<?.)  Vent  pipes  should  be  continued  from  all  traps — whether  sim- 
ple vented  S-traps,  or  non-siphoning  water  seal  or  mechanical 
traps — to  the  roof,  wherever  the  fixtures  are  at  a  distance  of  more 
than  five  feet  from  the  vertical  soil  or  waste  pipe,  in  order  to  prevent 
long  dead  ends  in  the  pipe  system.  Such  air  pipes  should  be  run 
with  a  continuous  slight  pitch  either  to  the  trap  of  the  fixture  or  to 
the  soil  pipe,  in  order  to  prevent  any  collection  of  water  from  con- 
densation. 
3.  System  of  Fixtures. 

(a.)  Plumbing  fixtures  in  tenement  houses  should  not  be  scattered, 
but  should  be  located  in  vertical  groups. 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES         3/1 

The  material  for  such  fixtures  should  be  strong  and  durable,  non- 
absorbent  and  non-corrosive. 

The  arrangement  of  fixtures  should  be  as  plain  as  possible. 

There  should  be  little  if  any  woodwork  about  plumbing  fixtures. 
An  open  arrangement  of  sinks  and  water  closets  is  to  be  recom- 
mended in  the  interest  of  cleanliness. 

The  outlets  of  all  fixtures,  except  water  closets,  must  be  protected 
against  obstruction  by  a  fixed  strainer. 

Each  fixture  must  be  separately  trapped,  as  near  as  possible  to  its 
outlet,  by  a  reliable,  safe  and  self-cleansing  trap. 

(b.)  There  should  be  an  abundant  supply  of  water  on  each  floor  of 
a  tenement  house.  Wherever  the  pressure  is  insufficient  to  raise  the 
water  to  the  upper  floor,  a  tank  at  the  top  floor  of  the  tenement  must 
be  provided,  sufficient  in  size  to  hold  one  or  two  days'  supply.  If 
the  water  does  not  fill  such  tank  by  the  pressure  in  the  mains  over 
night,  a  force-pump  should  be  provided. 

Water  tanks  for  tenement  houses  must  never  be  lined  with  lead, 
galvanized  iron  or  zinc.  Wooden  tanks  well  painted,  or  iron  tanks 
or  wooden  tanks  lined  with  tinned  copper,  should  be  used.  The 
overflow  of  such  tanks  should  never  be  connected  to  any  soil,  waste 
or  vent  pipe.  A  frequent  cleaning  of  water  tanks  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended, especially  where  they  are  used  to  supply  drinking  water. 
Water  tanks  should  be  covered  up  and  must  be  well  aired. 

No  water  closet,  slop  hopper  or  kitchen  sink  should  be  arranged 
on  tenement  floors,  unless  provision  has  been  made  for  an  adequate 
and  constant  water  supply. 

(c.)  No  water  closet,  slop  hopper,  sink  or  tub  should  be  placed  in 
any  apartment  or  closet  of  a  tenement  not  having  a  window  to  the 
outer  air  or  to  a  light  and  air  shaft  of  adequate  size. 

No  water  closet,  slop  hopper,  sink,  tub  or  bowl  should  be  placed 
in  any  living  or  sleeping  room  of  a  tenement  house,  nor  in  the  cellar 
of  such  building. 

Pan  closets  should  never  be  used  for  tenement  houses. 

Plain  flushing  rim  hopper  closets — preferably  short  hoppers  of  im- 
proved construction  or  pedestal  washdown  closets — are  recommended 
for  use  in  tenement  houses  in  preference  to  mechanical  closets. 

The  material  for  such  improved  hopper  closets  should  be  glass, 
earthenware,  iron  lined  with  glass,  or  enameled  (porcelain-lined)  iron. 
Hopper  closets  of  glass  probably  approach  the  ideal  closet  more  than 
any  other  kind,  but  they  are  not  yet  manufactured.  Closets  of  best 
earthenware  or  of  stoneware  answer  all  practical  requirements.  En- 


372  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ameled  iron  closets  are  to  be  preferred  only  on  account  of  their  strength 
where  a  very  rough  and  careless  use  of  the  closets  may  be  expected. 

Each  water  closet  in  a  tenement  house  must  be  flushed  from  a 
special  cistern,  located  in  the  apartment  at  a  sufficient  height  over 
the  closet  bowl  to  insure  a  strong  flush.  This  cistern  must  never  be 
used  to  draw  water  for  drinking  or  cooking  purposes. 

The  down  pipe  from  the  cistern  to  the  closet  bowl  must  not  be 
less  than  i^  inches  diameter. 

Water  closet  cisterns  in  tenements  should  be  operated  by  chain 
and  pull-down  handle,  or  else  by  seat  action.  The  latter  arrange- 
ment is  preferable  for  careless  tenants  and  children.  Automatic 
flushing  tanks  (siphon  tanks  and  tilting  tanks),  discharging  at  frequent 
fixed  intervals  during  the  day,  and  placed  under  exclusive  control  of 
a  janitor,  are  to  be  recommended  for  tenements,  but  are  objected  to 
by  Water  Departments  on  account  of  waste  of  water  and  by  land- 
lords on  account  of  the  water  tax. 

(dJ)  Slop  hoppers  must  be  flushed  from  special  cisterns,  preferably 
automatic  flushing  tanks,  in  the  same  manner  as  water  closets.  They 
must  have  strong  metallic  strainers  to  prevent  improperly  thrown  sub- 
stances from  choking  the  pipes. 

Water  closets  and  slop  hoppers  in  tenements  should  always  be 
arranged  in  an  open  manner,  and  tight  woodwork  around  them 
should  not  be  permitted. 

(e.)  The  floor  must  be  made  impervious,  and  slate  slabs  are  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose.  The  closet  should  stand  free  on  top  of 
such  slate  slab,  accessible  on  all  sides  for  inspection  and  cleaning 
purposes.  The  seat  should  be  a  plain,  well-finished  hardwood  board, 
with  proper  hole,  and  hinged  at  the  back  or  one  end,  so  as  to  be 
readily  lifted  when  the  closet  is  not  in  use.  Such  open  arrangement 
facilitates  the  use  of  the  closet  by  men  or  boys  as  a  urinal.  A  fur- 
ther improvement  is  to  raise  the  closet  a  step,  but  to  leave  a  part  of 
the  floor  wide  enough  to  allow  a  person  to  stand  between  the  steps 
on  each  side  in  front  of  the  closet,  at  the  common  level  of  the  room. 
This  arrangement  raises  the  closet  bowl  to  about  the  height  of  a  uri- 
nal basin,  and  prevents  spilling  if  the  water  closet  is  used  as  a  urinal 

(/.)  It  is  much  to  be  recommended  to  arrange  a  laundry  on  the 
top  floor  of  a  tenement  house,  to  be  used  alternately  by  the  tenants, 
and  kept  under  the  control  of  a  janitor. 

(g.)  A  simple  bathtub  for  each  tenement  (at  least  of  the  better 
class)  is  very  desirable  on  the  score  of  cleanliness  and  health.  If 
arranged  in  the  kitchen,  it  is  easy  to  provide  even  a  warm  bath  by 


SANITARY    DRAINAGE    OF    TENEMENT    HOUSES.       373 

pouring  pails  or  kettles  of  hot  water  heated  on  the  range  into  the 
tub.  It  is  perfectly  feasible  to  construct  such  bathtubs  so  as  to  serve 
also  as  laundry  tubs.* 


See  also  pages  286  and  287,  "  Baths   for  Tenements,"  and  Vol.  II.,  article  on  "  Bathing  and 
Different  Forms  of  Baths.'' 


XI. 

ON  TESTING  HOUSE  DRAINS  AND  PLUMB- 
ING WORK. 


Having  carefully  applied  the  leading-  principles  of 
safe  sanitary  drainage  in  the  planning  and  execution 
of  the  drainage  and  plumbing,  of  the  water  supply 
and  of  the  gas  piping  system  of  new  buildings,  it 
becomes  desirable  to  obtain  some  positive  knowledge 
or  proof  of  the  soundness  and  safety  of  the  work. 

This  is  accomplished  by  making  a  series  of  tests, 
which  in  any  work,  whether  small  or  large,  should 
always  be  carried  out  by  the  mechanics,  under  direc- 
tion of  the  architect  or  the  sanitary  expert. 

These  tests  may  be  conveniently  considered  under 
the  following  headings,  viz.: 

(#.)     TESTS  OF  THE  MATERIALS: 

1.  Pipes  and  Fittings. 

2.  Traps. 

3.  Fixtures. 

(6.)     TESTS  DURING  CONSTRUCTION: 

1.  Soil  Pipe  System. 

2.  Supply  System. 

3.  Gas  Pipe  System. 
(V.)     TESTS  AFTER  COMPLETION: 

1.  Soil  Pipe  System. 

2.  Supply  System. 

3.  Fixture  System. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    375 

Some  of  these  tests  are  carried  out  in  old  buildings 
wherever  there  is  any  doubt  or  suspicion  as  to  the 
condition  of  the  drainage  and  plumbing,  or  the  gen- 
eral healthfulness  of  a  house. 

(<?.)  The  tests  of  the  materials  employed  in  plumb- 
ing work  are  usually  applied  by  the  manufacturers, 
and  it  is  important  that  the  contractor,  in  buying  the 
materials,  should  secure  a  guarantee  that  the  tests 
have  been  actually  applied.  Thus,  each  length  of 
cast  iron  soil  pipe  and  each  fitting  shouid  be  tested  at 
the  foundry  by  hydrostatic  pressure  and  a  hammer 
test,  wrought  iron  pipes  for  water  and  gas  are  simi- 
larly tested  at  the  pipe  mills.  Valves,  faucets,  traps, 
brass  ferrules  and  other  fittings  should  also  be  in- 
spected and  tested.  Finally,  a  test  should  be  applied 
to  the  fixtures,  particularly  to  the  earthenware  water 
closets,  many  of  which  are  turned  out  at  the  potter- 
ies in  a  defective  condition  as  regards  the  flushing 
rim  or  the  jet,  which  operates  the  siphon. 

(£.)  During  the  construction  of  the  plumbing  work 
the  soil,  drain,  waste  and  vent  pipe  system  should, 
after  being  put  in  position  in  the  building,  be  tested 
by  filling  the  pipes  with  water  (water  or  hydrostatic 
pressure  test),  or  else  by  applying  an  air  force  pump 
and  mercury  gauge  (air  pressure  test).  These  are 
the  so-called  "roughing-in"  tests  as  distinguished 
from  the  "  final  tests"  of  the  completed  work.  De- 
fects in  material,  as  well  as  in  workmanship,  are 
readily  discovered  by  both  tests.  My  preference  is 
for  the  water  test,  which,  although  severe,  is  very 


376  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

positive  in  its  indications,  and  less  troublesome  in 
application  than  the  air  pressure  test.  It  can  be  ap- 
plied at  all  times  before  the  fixtures  are  set,  except 
during  freezing-  weather,  when  the  air  pressure  test 
takes  its  place. 

It  is  important  to  include  in  the  test  of  the  "  rough- 
ing-in  "  work,  the  branch  waste  and  vent  pipes  which 
are  connected  to  the  main  lines  with  brass  ferrules 
and  caulked  joints.  Indeed,  it  is  advisable  to  set  all 
lead  bends  for  water  closet  branches,  and  also,  where 
practicable,  the  lead  or  brass  traps  under  the  fixtures 
before  applying  the  test.  Where  this  is  done — and  I 
have  in  many  cases  in  my  own  practice  been  able  to 
carry  this  out — that  entire  part  of  the  plumbing  sys- 
tem, which  may  contain  sewer  air,  up  to  and  includ- 
ing the  traps,  is  put  under  inspection  and  test,  with 
the  only  exception  of  the  floor  joints  of  earthenware 
closets,  which  must  necessarily  be  left  out  and  can 
only  be  tested  by  the  air,  peppermint  or  smoke  test. 

A  water  pressure  test  is  generally  applied  in  the 
following  manner  :  The  lower  end  of  the  main  house 
drain  is  closed  outside  of  the  foundation  walls  by 
means  of  a  device  called  a  "  testing  plug."  Of  these 
there  are  several  good  patterns,  consisting  essentially 
of  a  compressible  rubber  ring  held  between  iron  rings 
or  discs,  which  when  screwed  together  increase  the 
outer  diameter  of  the  rubber  washer  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  will  close  the  pipe  tightly.  Care  should  be 
taken,  where  the  soil  pipe  stack  to  be  tested  is  very 
high  and  the  pressure  at  the  bottom  correspondingly 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    3/7 

large,  that  the  plug  will  not  blow  out.  To  prevent 
this  it  may  become  necessary  to  hold  the  plug  in  posi- 
tion by  special  braces.  Sometimes  the  plug  is  applied 
in  the  main  house  trap;  occasionally  this  is  filled  with 
melted  rosin,  or  its  outlet  is  temporarily  closed  by 
sheet  lead,  into  which  a  stop-cock  has  been  soldered 
which  permits  the  emptying  of  the  line. 

The  water  closet  bends  of  lead,  which  connect  with 
the  soil  pipe,  are  also  soldered  up  tightly,  all  other 
waste  and  vent  openings  are  closed,  either  by  brass 
or  iron  plugs,  or  else  the  ferrule  or  nipple  joint  is 
made  and  the  lead  waste  pipe  soldered  up  temporar- 
ily. All  roof  vents  located  on  lower  or  extension 
roofs,  the  \vaste  pipes  from  balconies  and  extension 
roof  leader  pipes  are  closed  up.  The  pipe  system  is 
then  filled  with  water  to  the  level  of  the  main  roof 
pipes  and  kept  under  this  pressure  during  the  test. 
The  pipe  lines  and  joints  throughout  the  building  are 
now  carefully  examined  for  leaks,  sand  holes,  etc., 
and  the  system  is  passed  as  tight  only  when  there 'are 
no  indications  of  leaks  anywhere. 

In  tall  buildings  it  is  necessary  to  test  the  pipe 
stacks  in  sections.  It  is  well  to  avoid  making  a 
hydrostatic  test  on  days  when  there  is  much  humid- 
ity in  the  atmosphere,  for  the  temperature  of  the  cold 
water  in  the  pipes  chills  the  sides  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  cause  considerable  condensation  on  the  outside, 
which  interferes  with  the  examination  of  the  pipes  as 
it  may  be  mistaken  for  leaks.  For  an  illustration  of 
the  application  of  the  water  test,  see  Fig,  33,  page  82. 


378  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

It  is  likewise  important  to  test  the  supply  pipe  sys- 
tem in  a  building  before  the  fixtures  are  connected 
and  the  water  turned  on.  The  test  should  subject 
the  pipes  and  fittings  to  a  much  heavier  pressure  than 
they  are  likely  to  carry  in  actual  use.  Thus,  w^ater 
pipes  and  fittings  should  be  tested  by  a  water  pres- 
sure test,  with  hydraulic  pressure  pump  and  spring 
gauge,  from  80  to  100  pounds  per  square  inch,  accord- 
ing to  the  pressure  which  will  exist  in  the  pipes 
when  in  actual  use. 

The  gas  piping  system  should  also  be  tested  under 
a  severe  pressure.  In  my  own  practice,  I  always  in- 
sist upon  an  air  pressure  equivalent  to  a  column  of 
mercury  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  the  mer- 
cury gauge,  which  corresponds  to  a  pressure  of  7^  to 
9  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  I  do  not  consider  the 
piping  tight  if  the  mercury  column  falls  more  than 
from  one-quarter  to  one-half  inch  in  an  hour,  this  de- 
pending upon  the  extent  of  the  pipe  system  under 
test. 

The  test  of  the  gas  piping  in  a  building  is  carried 
out  as  follows :  When  the  gas  risers,  distributing 
lines  and  branches  to  the  gas  outlets  are  run,  all  out- 
lets are  tightly  capped.  A  mercury  gauge  is  now 
temporarily  attached  to  a  convenient  side  outlet,  and 
the  force  pump  applied  to  raise  the  column  of  mer- 
cury in  the  gauge  about  eighteen  inches.  A  large 
leak  or  break  in  the  gas  piping  is  at  once  noticeable, 
for  the  mercury  will  bob  up  and  down,  and  not  rise 
in  the  tube.  Even  a  smaller  leak  may  be  at  once 


TESTING  HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    379 

noticed  by  the  fact  that  the  mercury  will  immediately 
begin  to  fall  in  the  glass  gauge  when  pumping  ceases. 
When  the  column  of  mercury  has  been  raised,  the 
cock  between  the  pump  and  gauge  is  tightly  closed. 
The  inspector  now  takes  the  exact  reading  of  the  mer- 
cury gauge,  notes  the  time  when  he  takes  the  obser- 
vation, and  watches  the  mercury  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes.  At  the  end  of  this  period  of  time  he  again 
takes  the  measurement  of  the  height  of  the  mercury 
column  and  notes  the  exact  amount  of  fall,  if  there 
has  been  any.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  a  fall  of 
more  than  y^-inch  in  fifteen  minutes,  indicates  one  or 
several  leaks  which  should  be  found  before  the  sys- 
tem can  be  passed  as  tight.  The  gas  fitter  generally 
searches  for  snch  leaks  by  introducing  some  sulphuric 
ether  into  the  gas  pipes  ;  some  times  he  is  able  to  find 
leaks  by  applying  soapsuds  to  the  joints  and  fittings. 
If  the  mercury  in  the  glass  gauge  stands  without  in- 
dicating any  fall  whatever,  the  gas  pipe  system  is 
passed  as  tight.  This,  however,  does  not  complete 
the  test,  for  a  careful  inspector  will  proceed  now  to 
ascertain  whether  the  entire  pipe  system  was  actually 
under  pressure.  This  is  readily  accomplished  by  hav- 
ing the  gas  fitter  go  to  the  various  floors  of  the  build- 
ing with  instruction  to  open  up  gradually  one  or  more 
caps  on  the  outlets.  By  opening  these  caps  only 
partly  enough  air  is  allowed  to  escape  to  cause  the 
mercury  in  the  gauge  to  drop  a  little.  As  soon  as 
the  column  falls,  the  inspector  calls  out  to  close  the 
cap,  whereupon  the  gas  fitter  proceeds  to  open  up  the 


380  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

next  outlet  and  so  forth.  By  this  method  of  testing" 
one  may  readily  find  any  gas  line  which,  either  by 
intention  or  by  oversight  has  not  been  connected 
with  the  general  system. 

(V.)  When  the  plumbing  work  of  a  building  is  com- 
pleted, it  is  desirable  to  apply  further  tests,  first, 
because  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  include  all  pipes 
and  joints  in  the  hydrostatic  test,  and  second  to 
ascertain  by  a  general  final  test  the  condition  of  the 
work.  The  drainage,  trap  and  fixture  system  should, 
therefore,  be  tested  by  applying  either  a  smoke  test 
or  a  peppermint  test.  These  will  help  to  discover 
leaky  floor  joints  of  water  closets,  or  defective  joints 
at  nickel-plated  brass  couplings,  or  traps  which  have 
lost  their  water  seal  by  tipping,  or  holes  in  lead  pipes 
caused  by  driving  nails  and  the  like.  The  manner  in 
which  these  tests  are  applied,  will  be  described  fur- 
ther on. 

The  following  paragraphs  on  "  Tests  of  Plumbing," 
which  I  take  from  the  Record  and  Guide,  of  October  3, 
1896,  are  to  the  point : 

Did  you  ever  give  it  a  thought  that  in  demanding  in  plumbing 
specifications  a  test  such  as  is  prescribed  by  the  New  York  City 
Building  Department,  one  only  gets  one-half  of  the  plumbing  pipes 
tested,  and  the  other  half,  including  the  branches  for  the  fixtures  and 
the  fixtures  themselves,  the  most  important  parts  of  the  plumbing,  are 
never  tested  ?  .  .  .  A  water  test  is  made  by  closing  up  all  the 
waste,  soil  and  vent  outlets  in  the  cast  or  wrought  iron  pipe.  Here 
the  test  stops;  the  rising  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes  and  probably  the 
cellar  drain  and  iron  branches,  together  with  the  fittings,  which 
are  later  to  receive  the  branch  pipes  for  the  fixtures,  are  the 
only  pipes  which  are  tested.  If  this  stands  the  test,  it  is  passed, 
and  the  building  is  not  tested  again,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    381 

since  the  test  was  made,  hundreds  of  feet  of  pipe  have  been  added 
to  the  plumbing  system,  hundreds  of  caulked  and  wiped  joints  have 
been  put  in,  and  the  fixtures  themselves  have  been  set.  The  most 
important  joints,  pipes  and  connections,  the  most  dangerous  joints, 
are  those  connecting  the  fixtures  proper  to  the  main  pipe,  and  why  ? 
Because  lead  and  brass  are  used  to  make  these  connections,  and  these 
two  articles  are  very  often  defective  in  themselves;  especially  is  this 
the  case  with  brass  ferrules.  These  materials  must  be  handled  by 
the  most  skilled  mechanics  to  have  the  work  properly  done.  Then 
we  come  to  the  caulking  in  of  the  brass  ferrules,  or  other  caulked 
joints  leading  to  the  fixtures.  These  joints  are  never  tested  after  the 
the  main  lines  have  been  tested  and  passed.  The  plumber  knowing 
that  no  further  test  will  be  applied  to  his  work,  naturally  slights  the 
most  important  part.  The  proper  setting  of  a  porcelain  water  closet 
or  wash  basin,  bath  or  other  plumbing  fixture,  is  a  more  important 
feature  in  plumbing  work  than  is  generally  supposed.  To  get  an 
even  tight  and  proper  setting  takes  particular  care  and  time.  If  a 
smoke  test  were  to  be  applied  to  every  building  in  any  large  city 
where  sanitary  plumbing  is  done,  and  where  Boards  of  Health  and 
Building  Departments  exists,  seven-eighths  of  the  buildings  would 
show  up  a  frightful  condition  of  the  plumbing. 

Some  few  architects  and  sanitary  engineers  have  seen  the  error  of 
not  testing  the  entire  plumbing  work  after  completion,  and  they  call 
for  the  smoke  test  to  be  applied  in  all  their  specifications.  The 
Building  and  Health  Departments  should  demand  this.  The 
Building  Department  in  particular  should  call  for  this  in  their  printed 
rules.  By  means  of  the  smoke  test  every  small  sand  hole  in  a  brass 
ferrule,  a  poorly  screwed  pipe,  a  defective  casting  of  any  kind,  a 
poorly  wiped  joint,  a  badly  set  water  closet,  basin  coupling,' cracked 
porcelain  ware,  or  in  old  work  a  pipe  which  is  clogged  up  with  rust 
may  be  detected,  not  only  by  the  odor  of  the  smoke,  but  by  seeing  it 
puff  out  with  every  stroke  of  the  bellows  of  the  testing  machine.  In 
testing  old  houses  by  means  of  the  smoke  test,  the  fact  of  several 
houses  being  connected  together  by  one  house  drain  instead  of  hav- 
ing each  an  independent  drain  or  house  sewer,  can  be  found  out  in- 
side of  ten  minutes,  without  resorting  to  excavating,  or  going  down 
to  the  public  sewer  in  the  street. 

Since  January,  1897,  the  plumbing  rules  of  the  New 
York  City  Building  Department  have  been  so  modified 
as  to  include  a  final  test  by  smoke  or  peppermint. 
The  rules  as  now  enforced,  are  as  follows  : 


382  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  entire  plumbing  and  drainage  system  within  a  building  must 
be  tested  by  the  plumber,  in  the  presence  of  a  plumbing  inspector, 
under  a  water  or  air  test,  as  directed.  All  pipes  must  remain  uncov- 
ered in  every  part  until  they  have  successfully  passed  the  test.  The 
plumber  must  securely  close  all  openings  as  directed  by  the  inspector 
of  plumbing.  The  use  of  wooden  plugs  for  this  purpose  is  pro- 
hibited. 

The  water  test  will  be  applied  by  closing  the  lower  end  of  the  main 
house  drain  and  filling  the  pipes  to  the  highest  opening  above  the 
roof  with  water.  If  the  drain  or  any  part  of  the  system  is  to  be 
tested  separately,  there  must  be  a  head  of  water  of  at  least  six  (6) 
feet  above  all  parts  of  the  work  so  tested,  and  special  provision  must 
be  made  for  including  all  joints  and  connections  in  at  least  one  test. 

The  air  test  will  be  applied  with  a  force  pump  and  mercury  col- 
umn under  ten  pounds  pressure,  equal  to  twenty  inches  of  mercury. 
The  use  of  spring  gauges  is  prohibited. 

After  the  completion  of  the  work,  when  the  water  has  been  turned 
on  and  the  traps  filled,  the  plumber  must  make  a  peppermint  test  or 
smoke  test  in  the  presence  of  a  plumbing  inspector  and  as  directed 
by  him. 

The  material  and  labor  for  the  tests  must  be  furnished  by  the 
plumber.  Where  the  peppermint  test  is  used,  two  ounces  of  oil  of 
peppermint  must  be  provided  for  -each  line  up  to  five  stories  and 
basement  in  height,  and  for  each  additional  five  stories  or  fraction 
thereof  one  additional  ounce  of  peppermint  must  be  provided  for 
each  line. 

I  wish  to  point  out  that  in  my  own  practice  I  do  not 
consider  a  head  or  water  of  six  feet  as  at  all  satisfac- 
tory or  sufficient.  Where  it  becomes  necessary  to 
test  the  horizontal  part  of  a  house  sewer,  necessarily 
located  below  the  cellar  floor  level,  before  the  upright 
soil  pipes  are  run,  in  order  to  permit  the  concreting 
and  finishing  of  the  floor,  I  always  insist  upon  filling 
the  drain  with  water  under  street  pressure,  or  where 
this  is,  for  any  reason  impracticable,  or  where  the 
street  pressure  is  less  than  25  pounds  per  square  inch, 
I  require  the  use  of  a  hydraulic  force  pump  and  spring 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    383 

gauge,  and  insist  upon  a  pressure  of  at  least  25  pounds 
being  applied. 

The  water  supply  system  is  tested  by  turning  on 
the  water  at  all  fixtures,  by  regulating  the  ball  cocks  in 
the  cisterns  so  as  to  work  noiselessly  and  without  spat- 
tering, by  repairing  dripping  faucets,  leaky  stuffiing 
boxes  of  shut-off  valves,  coupling  joints,  etc.  Finally, 
the  operation  of  the  fixtures  is  tested,  particularly  the 
the  flush  of  water  closets,  urinals  and  slop  sinks,  also 
the  proper  and  quick  emptying  of  bathtubs,  sinks  and 
lavatories,  and  the  automatic  action  of  siphon  or  other 
flushing  appliances. 

The  gas  piping  and  the  gas  fixture  system  are  tested 
by  turning  on  the  gas,  and  observing  by  the  sense  of 
smell  if  there  are  any  leaks,  also  by  watching  the 
small  index  hand  of  the  gas  meter.  This  final  test  of 
the  gas  piping  includes  the  fixture  joints,  i.  e.,  the 
joints  made  by  removing  the  caps  and  attaching  the 
gas  chandeliers  and  side  brackets.  This  work  is  gen- 
erally done  by  the  firms  who  supply  the  gas  fixtures, 
and  architects  or  owners  would  do  well,  in  selecting 
and  ordering  these,  to  impress  upon  the  fixture  manu- 
facturers the  importance  of  having  careful  mechanics 
hang  and  attach  the  fixtures.  It  happens  too  often 
that  after  this  work  is  done  and  the  gas  is  turned  on, 
serious  leaks  become  noticeable,  and  generally  sus- 
picion attaches  at  first  to  the  plumber  or  gas  fitter 
that  he  has  slighted  his  work,  whereas  the  leaks  are 
in  nearly  all  instances  found  to  be  the  fault  of  the 
mechanic  who  hung  up  and  connected  the  fixtures. 


384  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Elsewhere*  I  shall  describe  more  in  detail  the  proper 
methods  of  inspecting  the  plumbing  work  in  old  build- 
ings. I  must  draw  attention,  however,  in  this  place  to 
the  fact  that  even  the  most  experienced  and  successful 
sanitary  engineer  is  not  able  to  determine  from  a  mere 
inspection  of  the  plumbing  work  and  of  the  drains 
whether  the  drainage  of  a  building  is  in  a  safe  condi- 
tion. No  matter  how  well  the  work  seems  to  have 
been  done,  it  is  necessary  and  always  advisable  to 
apply  some  of  the  tests  mentioned  in  referring  to  new 
buildings.  The  general  examination  serves  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  design  and  arrangement  of  the  work 
is  sanitary  and  in  accordance  with  modern  methods, 
but  tests  must  be  applied  to  find  out  positively 
whether  the  workmanship  is  thorough  and  free  from 
defects,  in  particular  whether  the  numerous  joints  in 
the  pipe-work  are  absolutely  water  and  air-tight.  An 
ocular  inspection  of  pipe  joints  may  inform  the  care- 
ful inspecting  engineer  whether  proper  materials  h  ive 
been  used  in  them,  but  to  determine  their  degree  of 
tightness,  a  test  should  always  be  required.  These 
tests  are  generally  so  readily  applied  that  it  seems 
inexcusable  to  neglect  them,  particularly  as  they  also 
serve  to  trace  the  course  of  the  pipes  and  answer 
many  questions  incidentally  arising  during  the  sani- 
tary examination  of  a  house. 

I  wish  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  it  is  desirable  to 


*See  Vol.  II.,  chapter  on  "Sanitary  House  Inspection."  This  subject  is  also 
discussed  at  length  in  the  author's  book,  "A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection,** 
published  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons.  Third  edition.  Price,  $i.oc. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    385 

have  a  complete  inspection  and  a  systematic  test  of 
the  plumbing  performed  by  a  disinterested  and  relia- 
ble man,  who  should  possess  not  only  general  intelli- 
gence but  special  skill  and  a  large  experience  in  this 
line  of  work.  The  sanitary  expert  selected  must  be 
able  not  merely  to  trace  defects,  if  there  are  any,  but 
he  must  be  competent  to  give  unbiased  advice  in  the 
matter  of  reconstruction  of  faulty  and  unsanitary 
work. 

The  tests  usually  applied  in  the  sanitary  inspection 
of  plumbing  and  drainage  work  in  completed  build- 
ings, whether  old  or  new,  are  : 

(#.)  The  hydraulic  test. 

(^.)  The  odor  test,  such  as  the  peppermint  test. 

(c.)  The  smoke  test. 

(d.*)  The  air  pressure  test. 

Other  less  frequent  tests  will  also  be  briefly  men- 
tioned hereafter. 

(#.)  The  water  pressure  test  is  not  practically  and 
generally  applicable  to  plumbing  work  which  is  in 
actual  use,  because  it  would  necessitate  the'  discon- 
necting of  all  fixtures.  Even  then  it  would  be  some- 
what risky  to  apply,  owing  to  the  possibility,  in  case 
there  are  leaky  joints  or  defective  pipes,  of  flooding 
parts  of  the  house  and  perhaps  damaging  furniture, 
carpets  and  valuable  decorations. 

In  some  cases  a  water  pressure  test  of  the  cellar 
drain-pipes  may  be  performed,  provided  there  are  no 
fixtures  or  openings  into  the  drain  on  the  cellar  floor. 
The  drain  is,  in  such  cases,  closed  at  the  main  trap 


386  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  the  pipes  are  filled  with  water  up  to  the  line  of 
the  basement  floor.  While  this  does  not  secure  a 
strong-  pressure,  it  is  generally  in  old  work  sufficient 
to  reveal  existing  defects. 

However  valuable  the  "  water  test  "  is  when  applied 
to  work  in  course  of  construction  in  new  buildings, 
the  smoke  and  odor  tests  are  more  useful  in  searching 
for  defects  in  existing  drains  and  plumbing.  Both  of 
these  will,  therefore,  in  the  following,  be  described  in 
detail. 

(<$.)  The  peppermint  test  is  applied  as  follows  : 

The  inspector  procures  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pure 
oil  of  peppermint,  which  it  is  advisable  to  obtain  in 
two-ounce  bottles  with  glass  stoppers  or  with  corks 
which  latter  should  be  closed  tightly  by  means 
of  sealing-wax.  The  best  place  to  introduce  the  pep- 
permint is  from  the  roof-pipes.  The  fresh-air  inlet 
must  be  closed  during  the  test.  Before  pouring1  the 
oil  it  is  recommended  to  let  very  hot  water  flow 
through  all  the  fixtures  in  the  house  in  order  to  heat 
up  the  pipes.  All  doors  and  windows  must  be  care- 
fully closed  during  the  test,  likewise  openings  of  vent 
registers,  ventilating  skylights  and  roof  scuttles,  as 
the  odor  is  readily  driven  by  wind  or  air  currents  into 
the  house. 

Two  ounces  of  the  oil  should  be  poured  through 
each  soil  or  waste  pipe,  but  none  through  the  vent  or 
back-air  pipes  for  reasons  which  will  be  explained 
below.  About  half  a  pailful  of  hot  water  is  then 
poured  into  each  pipe  to  volatilize  the  oil  still  further, 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    387 

but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water, 
as  the  oil  would  be  washed  out  with  it  into  the  street 
sewer.  Some  inspectors  have  the  oil  and  boiling 
water  mixed  in  the  pail,  but  I  do  not  consider  this  as 
good  as  pouring  the  oil  alone. 

The  oil  and  water  are  poured  by  an  assistant,  who 
then  closes  all  pipe-mouths  on  the  roof,  to  confine  the 
odor  in  the  pipes,  and  who  should  remain  on  the  roof 
until  the  test  is  completed,  for  the  odor  of  the  oil  is 
so  strong  that  it  attaches  to  his  hands  and  clothes, 
and  if  he  should  go  through  the  house,  he  would 
bring  the  scent  of  peppermint  with  him,  distribute  it 
through  the  house  and  thereby  render  any  test 
illusive. 

The  inspecting  engineer,  who  should  not  be  on 
the  roof  when  the  bottles  containing  the  oil  of  pepper- 
mint are  opened,  proceeds  to  examine  the  plumbing, 
going  through  the  entire  house  from  floor  to  floor,  and 
noticing  any  escape  of  the  extremely  pungent  pepper- 
mint, which  thus  indicates  the  presence  of  leaks  or 
defects. 

The  following  cautions  should  be  observed  in  the 
peppermint  test :  The  bottles  containing  the  oil 
should  not  be  carried  through  the  house  except  when 
they  are  tightly  sealed.  No  peppermint  should  be  in 
any  way  spilled.  No  plumbing  fixtures  should  be 
used  during  the  test,  as  this  might  wash  the  pepper- 
mint into  the  sewer.  The  peppermint  should  never 
be  thrown  into  a  sink  or  water  closet,  as  some  odor 
would  invariably  escape  into  the  apartment  and 


388  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

from  there  be  diffused  throughout  the  house,  and  the 
indications  of  the  test  might  thereby  be  rendered 
misleading  or  useless.  The  oil  should  not  be  poured 
into  a  vent-line  when  the  plumbing  is  so  arranged 
that  the  fixture  traps  are  "  back-vented "  from  the 
crown  or  upper  bend  of  the  trap,  for  some  drops  of 
the  oil  would  then  flow  into  the  water  forming  the 
trap-seal  and  its  scent  would  very  soon  be  given  off 
at  the  house  side  of  the  trap. 

The  peppermint  test  is  in  a  measure  quite  useful, 
but  it  should  always  be  applied  with  some  caution, 
for  unless  extreme  care  is  taken  in  its  application,  its 
results  may  at  times  become  misleading.  It  is,  there- 
fore, in  the  hands  of  inexperienced  or  unscrupulous 
persons,  a  rather  dangerous  and  somewhat  objec- 
tionable test.  It  is,  furthermore,  obvious  that  it  will 
not  always  be  possible  to  locate  by  the  peppermint 
test  the  exact  position  of  a  leak,  or  even  to  determine, 
when  an  escape  is  noticed,  what  the  defect  is.  The 
oil  of  peppermint  test  cannot,  for  all  these  reasons, 
be  considered  as  reliable  or  efficient  as  the  smoke 
test. 

(r.)  In  the  smoke  test  the  drainage  system  of  a 
building  is  tested  by  filling  the  pipes  with  smoke 
under  some  pressure.  In  case  of  very  bad  leaks  or  of 
defects  such  as  untrapped  fixtures,  or  bye-passes  in 
vent  pipes,  it  offers  a  positive  ocular  demonstration 
that  sewer  air  penetrates  a  building.  But  inasmuch 
as  the  smoke  from  burning  tarred  paper  has  quite  a 
pungent  odor,  this  test  is  really  at  times  an  odor  test, 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    389 

and  where  the  leaks  are  quite  small  and  therefore  the 
smoke  would  not  be  visible,  the  test  is  still  advan- 
tageous in  giving-  indication  of  something  being 
wrong  by  the  odor  of  the  smoke.  In  nearly  all  cases, 
except  of  very  slight  leaks,  the  smoke  becomes  visi- 
ble and  apparent  to  the  sense  of  both  sight  and 
smell,  and  indicates  the  exact  place  at  which  the 
plumbing  or  drainage  is  unsafe.  My  experience  has 
been  that  the  smoke  test  is  much  more  convincing  to 
occupants  of  a  building  than  the  peppermint  test,  and 
the  needed  alterations  recommended  are  much  more 
likely  to  be  adopted,  after  the  owner  of  a  house  has 
personally  witnessed  the  demonstration  of  the  defec- 
tive work,  however  much  he  may  dread  the  repairs 
on  account  of  the  inconvenience  likely  to  arise,  or  011 
account  of  the  expense. 

Of  all  available  methods  of  testing  old  work,  the 
smoke  test  is  doubtless  the  most  reliable.  It  may  be 
carried  out  by  means  of  so-called  "  drain  testers  "  or 
smoke  rockets,  which  are  filled  with  chemicals  which 
ignite  when  introduced  past  the  trap-seal  of  a  water 
closet  and  then  give  off  a  powerfully  pungent  odor, 
and  simultaneously  create  volumes  of  dense  smoke. 
I  have  occasionally  made  use  of  what  are  known  as 
Kingzett's  patent  drain  testers,  in  cases  where  it  was 
not  so  much  a  question  of  testing  an  entire  building, 
but  of  ascertaining  whether  defects  existed  about 
some  particular  suspected  fixture  or  locality  in  a 
house.  A  single  drain  tester  is  generally  sufficient, 
though  several  may  be  used  in  succession.  It  is 


3QO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

thrown  into  the  trap  of  a  water  closet,  and  followed 
by  a  pailful  of  water,  which  carries  the  tester  past  the 
trap  into  the  soil-pipe  or  the  drain.  The  tester  then 
opens  immediately  and  discharges  its  contents.  The 
water,  by  acting  upon  the  chemical  substance  con- 
tained in  the  tester,  produces  a  smoke  of  a  very 
penetrating  smell.  A  string  is  attached  to  the  tester 
and  this  is  held  by  the  inspector,  and  after  the  test  is 
completed — in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes — the  metal 
case  is  withdrawn  by  means  of  the  string,  and  in  this 
way  the  inspector  makes  sure  that  the  tester  has 
actually  discharged  its  contents. 

But  while  these  chemical  testers  may  answer  in  a 
small  way,  they  are  not  as  efficient  as  the  special 
"  smoke  testing  "  machines,  which  consist  of  either 
rotary  fans  or  of  bellows,  by  means  of  which  a 
steady  volume  of  smoke  can  be  introduced  into  all 
drain  lines,  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes,  including  the 
side  branches  and  horizontal  wastes  into  which  smoke 
can  only  travel  when  forced  under  pressure. 

In  applying  a  smoke  test  to  a  building,  the  best 
available  place  for  the  introduction  of  the  smoke 
should  be  determined  first.  Under  all  circumstances 
the  smoke  must  be  introduced  into  the  pipes  at  some 
opening  on  the  outside  of  the  house.  It  is  inexpe- 
dient to  place  the  machine  either  in  the  cellar  or  else- 
where within  the  house,  as  some  smoke  unavoidably 
escapes  at  the  machine,  which  would  travel  upward 
and  through  the  house  and  thus  spoil  the  test.  A 
good  place  at  which  the  machine  may  be  used  is  the 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    391 

fresh-air  inlet  to  the  drain,  when  such  has  been  pro- 
vided and  when  it  is  clear  of  all  obstructions.  It  is 
probably  true  that  with  the  machine  applied  near  the 
lowest  point  of  the  drainage  system,  the  smoke  which 
is  light  will  rise  easier  and  therefore  fill  the  house-pipes 
with  smoke  much  quicker.  Notwithstanding  this  fact, 
I  have  by  practical  experience  found  that  equally  good 
results  are  attained  by  forcing  the  smoke  in  at  the 
roof  through  any  of  the  soil,  drain  or  vent  pipes.  In 
the  case  of  city  houses,  in  particular,  it  is  for  several 
reasons  more  convenient  to  have  the  machine  placed 
on  the  generally  flat  roof  of  the  building. 

The  inspecting  engineer  should  make  sure  that  the 
smoke  has  actually  circulated  through  the  entire  pipe 
system  before  proceeding  to  search  for  leaks ;  there- 
fore, he  should  keep  all  pipe  openings  at  the  roof- 
except,  of  course,  the  one  at  which  the  machine  is 
placed — open  until  the  smoke  issues  from  them.  The 
pipes  should  then  be  closed,  one  after  the  other,  as 
soon  as  the  smoke  appears  at  them,  and  then  the 
pumping  at  the  machine  should  be  kept  up,  though 
more  gently,  in  order  not  to  force  by  too  much  pres- 
sure the  water-seal  of  any  trap  in  the  house,  which 
would  render  the  test  a  failure. 

Some  of  the  common  smoke  testing  machines  in 
general  use  are  described  and  illustrated  in  Chapter 
III.,  Figs.  36  to  39.  Any  smoke-producing  com- 
bustible substance,  such  as  old  rags,  greasy  cotton 
waste,  oakum  or  tarred  building  paper,  may  be  used 
in  the  machine.  I  have  found  that  tar  paper,  as  used 


392  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

for  roofing  purposes,  torn  in  small  pieces,  is  about  as 
good  as  any,  provided  it  is  not  too  heavily  tarred. 
A  pungent,  penetrating  odor  is  also  obtained  by  burn- 
ing with  the  tar-paper  a  small  amount  of  flowers  of 
sulphur. 

When  all  the  pipe-lines  are  charged  with  the  smoke, 
the  inspector  goes  through  the  house  and  searches  for 
defects  which  show  themselves,  as  explained  above, 
either  by  the  visibility  of  the  smoke  or  by  its  odor, 
or  both. 

The  following  cautions  should  be  observed  in  mak- 
ing a  smoke  test :  The  entire  apparatus  required  for 
the  smoke  test  must  remain  outside  of  the  building 
during  the  test.  At  the  beginning  one  should  ascer- 
tain whether  the  house  drain  is  cut  off  from  the  street 
sewer  by  a  running  or  drain  trap,  for  if  this  is  not  the 
case  much  of  the  smoke  will  escape  into  the  street 
sewer,  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  fill  the  entire  sys- 
tem properly.  Where  the  drain  is  left  untrapped,  it 
should  therefore  be  closed  in  some  way  at  its  lowest 
point  where  it  leaves  the  house.  Sometimes  it  will 
be  discovered  by  the  smoke  test  that  the  drains  from 
several  adjoining  houses  communicate  with  each 
other,  and  it  is  then  necessary  to  cut  off  the  neigh- 
boring houses  first. 

It  is  also  recommended  to  remove  first  all  casings 
around  plumbing  pipes,  for  in  case  of  leaks  the  escap- 
ing smoke  would  travel  along  the  casings  and  be 
carried  from  the  floor  where  the  leak  exists  to  other 
floors  of  the  house. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    393 

To  ascertain  definitely  the  condition  of  under- 
ground drains  which  are  buried,  it  is  advisable  that 
they  be  first  uncovered,  for  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  smoke  will  penetrate  through  a  concrete,  asphalt 
or  water-tight  floor,  though  I  have  known  of  cases 
where  smoke  from  leaky  drains  penetrated  through 
several  inches  of  soil  and  ordinary  concrete. 

All  doors  and  windows  should  be  kept  carefully 
shut  during  the  test,  the  same  as  when  testing  with 
peppermint.  Furthermore,  no  water  should  be  al-  , 
lowed  to  flow  from  fixtures  into  the  pipe  system  and 
drains.  In  fact,  when  a  smoke  test  is  to  be  applied, 
the  inside  of  all  pipes  should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possi- 
ble before  and  during  the  test,  for  damp  or  wet  pipes 
condense  the  smoke  and  it  wall  then  take  a  great  deal 
more  time  to  make  the  smoke  come  out  at  the  pipe 
outlets  on  the  roof.  For  the  same  reason  a  smoke 
test  can  seldom  be  successfully  applied  during  a  rain- 
storm, when  the  roof  conductor  pipes  are  connected 
with  the  house  drain. 

The  inspecting  engineer  can  ascertain  during  the 
test  whether  his  assistant  keeps  up  the  pumping  by 
observing  the  water  standing  in  a  water  closet  trap, 
for  this  will  show  a  slight  up  and-down  movement. 
He  can  also  ascertain  whether  the  smoke  has  circu- 
lated through  all  branch  waste  pipes  by  opening  a 
trap-screw  of  a  fixture  trap,  though  this  should  be 
done  carefully  in  order  not  to  permit  too  much  smoke 
to  escape,  and  after  tightening  the  trap-screw  the 
trap-seal  should  be  restored  by  letting  water  flow 
into  the  trap. 


394  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

In  the  case  of  pitched  roofs  it  is  often  difficult  to 
close  the  pipe-mouths,  but  it  should  be  done,  never- 
theless, for  a  smoke  test  with  open  roof-pipes  cannot 
be  at  all  reliable. 

The  smoke  test,  when  applied  to  work  in  new  build- 
ings, after  the  "roughing"  test  has  been  made,  is 
useful  in  discovering  leaks  and  improperly  made  floor 
connections  of  water  closets  and  slop  sinks  ;  it  also 
shows  leaks  at  coupling  joints  when  washers  are 
either  omitted  or  have  shrunk  or  dried  up  or  when 
screw  joints  are  badly  made.  It  tests,  in  a  general 
way,  all  connections  which  could  not  be  made  or 
completed  at  the  time  when  the  water  pressure  test 
was  carried  out. 

Applied  to  the  plumbing  work  of  old  buildings,  the 
smoke  test  is  very  valuable,  because  it  ascertains  a 
great  many  other  important  points.  It  not  only 
shows  defects  in  pipes  and  fittings  (sand-holes,  cracks 
and  splits),  but  also  defective  joints,  and  leaks  at  back- 
vent  horns  of  porcelain  fixtures.  One  can  often  dis- 
cover by  means  of  the  smoke  test  imperfectly  closed 
or  cut-off  ends  of  disused  waste  or  vent  pipes,  or  pipe 
ends  carelessly  left  open. 

The  smoke  test  also  serves  to  show  if  the  drain, 
soil  and  waste  pipes  are  free  and  unobstructed  ;  if  the 
fresh-air  inlet  is  free  and  open,  and  the  soil,  waste  and 
vent  extensions  on  the  roof  are  actual  vent  pipes,  and 
not  merely  "  dummy  "  pipes,  or  pipes  rendered  useless 
by  closure,  either  by  rust  or  by  accidentally  dropped 
plugs  of  oakum,  etc. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    395 

Again,  the  test  is  very  useful  in  discovering  bye- 
passes  in  the  trap-vent  system,  in  determining 
whether  fixtures  are  properly  trapped  and  whether 
the  water-seal  in  traps  has  not  dried  out,  and  likewise 
in  ascertaining  whether  leaders,  area  and  yard  drains 
are  properly  and  effectively  trapped.  It  also  shows 
when  roof  pipes  are  too  close  to  ventilating  shafts, 
chimney  flues,  water  tanks,  dormer  windows,  ventila- 
ting skylights,  etc.  Finally,  it  shows  where  connec- 
tions exist  between  the  drains  of  adjoining  houses, 
and  it  may  discover  abandoned  sewers  in  cellars,  or 
fresh-air  boxes  to  a  heating  apparatus  drawing  their 
air  supply  from  leaky  drains.  In  fact,  the  indications 
of  the  test  are  so  valuable  to  a  person  experienced  in 
the  testing  and  inspection  of  houses  that  a  smoke  test 
should  never  be  omitted,  except  in  cases  of  very  old 
houses  \vhich  have  neither  fresh-air  inlet  opening  nor 
vent  pipes  of  any  kind  carried  to  the  roof. 

When  larger  buildings,  having  an  extensive  system 
of  drain  and  soil  pipes,  are  to  be  tested,  it  is  advisable 
to  use  several  smoke-testing  machines.  This  insures 
quicker  results  and  enables  the  drain-tester  to  keep 
the  pipes  well  filled  with  smoke. 

(</.)  Sometimes,  though  not  often,  plumbing  work 
in  old  buildings  is  tested  by  an  air-pressure  test.  I 
have  already  mentioned  that  during  freezing  weather 
the  rough  work  is  sometimes  tested  by  air,  instead  of 
water,  pressure.  The  application  of  the  test  is  similar 
to  the  gas-piping  test  described,  and  the  pipe  system 
is  subjected  to  an  air  pressure  of  10  pounds,  equal  to 


396  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

a  column  of  about  20  inches  of  mercury  in  the  gauge. 
When  the  entire  plumbing  system,  including  fixtures 
and  traps,  is  tested  by  an  air  or  pneumatic  test,  a 
heavy  air  pressure  is,  of  course,  inapplicable.  An  air- 
pump  of  large  capacity  is  attached  to  some  opening 
of  the  system,  and  in  connection  with  the  pump  is 
a  metal  case  or  box  containing  some  cotton  waste 
soaked  in  oil  of  peppermint.  All  pipe  extensions  on 
the  roof  are  closed,  and  likewise  the  fresh-air  inlet. 
The  air  is  now  pumped  into  the  pipes,  and  its  pres- 
sure is  recorded  by  a  manometer.  If  the  entire  sys- 
tem is  tight,  a  few  strokes  of  the  pump  will  suffice  to 
indicate  a  pressure  at  the  gauge,  whereas,  if  there  are 
leaks,  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  will  not  rise  above  the 
zero  point.  The  leaks  indicated  by  the  escaping  scent 
of  peppermint  are  then  temporarily  repaired  and  the 
pressure  again  pumped  up.  In  this  way  all  existing 
leaks  are  found  one  by  one  and  noted,  and  the  pro- 
cess is  kept  up  until  the  gauge  registers  the  pressure 
and  stands  permanent.  In  order  to  avoid  forcing  the 
seals  of  any  of  the  traps  in  the  building,  it  is  well  to 
use  near  the  gauge  a  relief-trap  having  an  adjustable 
seal,  which  must  be  set  so  it  will  be  forced  before 
any  trap-seals  in  the  house  are  broken. 

An  air-pressure  test  is  generally  more  difficult  to 
apply  than  a  smoke  test.  The  leaks,  if  there  are 
such,  are  more  troublesome  to  find.  It  also  requires 
more  time  to  fill  a  large  system  with  air  and  in  prac- 
tice it  is  found  that  where  testing  plugs  are  used  to 
close  up  openings,  they  leak  and  can  be  tightened 
only  with  difficulty. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    397 

Different  odor  tests  have  been  proposed  from  time 
to  time,  substituting  for  the  oil  of  peppermint  poured 
into  the  pipes  other  chemicals  having  or  developing" 
a  very  pungent  odor.  Some  have  suggested  the  use 
of  sulphuric  ether,  but  this  will  never  become  popu- 
lar, for  it  would  involve  too  much  danger  of  an 
explosion,  in  case  the  ether  should  escape  near  open 
flames  or  lights.  It  might  just  as  well  be  suggested 
to  fill  the  soil  pipe  system  with  coal  or  illuminating 
gas,  for  this  would  also  readily  show  by  its  peculiar, 
strong  odor  where  the  pipes  or  joints  are  leaking,  but 
owing  to  the  danger  from  fire  or  an  explosion,  it  can- 
not in  practice  be  used.  Paraffine  and  kerosene  are 
also  unavailable  for  the  same  reasons.  Strong  smell- 
ing essential  oils  are  used  to  some  extent  in  odor 
tests,  such  as  aniseed  oil,  mtro-benzole,  oil  of  mur- 
bane  (artificial  or  bitter  almonds),  oil  of  thyme,  of 
eucalyptus,  valerian  oil,  oil  of  rosemary,  and  of  tere- 
bene.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  test  drains  with 
musk,  a  very  small  quantity  of  which  would  be  suf- 
ficient for  this  purpose.  Finally,  a  more  scientific 
test,  by  means  of  the  spectroscope,  has  been  sug- 
gested, by  introducing  acetate  of  lithium,  or  tellurium 
into  the  soil  pipes.  In  case  of  a  leaky  or  defective 
drainage  system,  the  atmosphere  in  the  house,  when 
examined  by  the  spectroscope,  would  show  the  char- 
acteristic lines  of  these  chemical  elements.  Such 
tests,  however,  would  require  delicate  and  expensive 
scientific  apparatus,  and  hence  do  not  commend 
themselves  to  me  as  at  all  practical. 


398  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

In  connection  with  odor  tests  I  may  state  that  my 
experience  has  been  that  the  results  obtained  are  at 
times  much  more  satisfactory  than  at  others.  I  have 
repeatedly  observed  the  fact  that  the  temperature  of 
both  the  outside  atmosphere  and  of  the  air  of  the 
building  has  some  bearing  upon  the  results  of  the  test. 
Generally  speaking,  a  test  made  when  a  house  is  occu- 
pied, particularly  in  winter  time  when  the  house  is 
heated,  the  kitchen  chimney  warm  from  a  brisk  fire  in 
the  range,  while  the  outside  air  is  dry  and  cold,  gives 
more  successful  results  than  a  test  of  an  unoccupied 
and  unheated  house,  or  a  test  of  a  building  in  warm 
weather.  I  also  incline  to  the  belief  that  the  reading 
of  the  barometer  has  an  influence  on  the  successful 
application  of  a  scent  test.  The  smoke  test,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  not  seem  to  be  so  much  influenced 
by  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  is,  for  this  reason 
alone,  preferable  to  odor  tests. 

In  order  to  have  continued  assurance  that  the 
plumbing,  the  drainage  and  the  gas  piping  of  a  build- 
ing remain  safe,  it  is  advisable  and  of  importance 
that  the  work  be  re-inspected  annually  and  that  one 
of  the  tests  described  above  should  be  repeated  from 
time  to  time.  The  drains  in  particular  should  be  re- 
examined  and  tested  once  a  year.  Attention  is  called 
to  this  matter  because  drains  and  sanitary  appliances 
are  as  much  subject  to  wear  and  tear  as  other  parts 
of  the  household  machinery.  Unforeseen  causes  may 
render  drains  inoperative  or  create  stoppages.  The 
ground  on  which  a  building  stands  may  yield,  its 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    399 

walls  may  settle  with  the  foundations,  pipes  may 
break  or  joints  become  leaky,  as  for  instance  by  ex- 
pansion, when  much  hot  water  passes  through  the 
pipes.  Again  the  traps  may  sag  or  tip  over,  rubber 
gaskets  of  floor  joints  may  desintegrate  and  rot, 
leaving  open  cracks  through  which  sewer  air  may 
pass,  or  brass  coupling  joints  may  become  loose  by 
reason  of  rubber  or  leather  washers  shrinking.  In 
short,  there  are  numerous  points  which  in  a  plumbing 
and  drainage  system  are  subject  to  inevitable  decay 
and  which  may  start  defects  requiring  repairs  after 
the  system  has  been  in  long  and  constant  use.  Hence 
arises  the  necessity  of  periodical  re-inspection  which 
is  just  as  desirable  with  plumbing  work  as  it  is  with 
steam  boilers  or  other  machinery. 

Plumbing  and  drainage  work  may  be  correctly 
arranged,  yet  the  tests  may,  and  often  do,  show  leaks 
or  defects  due  to  bad  workmanship.  On  the  other 
hand  where  the  tests  show  no  leaks  or  defects,  work 
may  nevertheless  be  defective  and  not  in  accordance 
with  modern  rules.  Therefore,  architects  should  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  the  leading  principles  of  scien- 
tific house  drainage  and  plumbing,  in  locating  and 
arranging  the  drainage  and  plumbing  of  modern 
buildings — be  the  same  a  dwelling  house,  an  office 
building,  a  warehouse  or  factory,  a  church  or  school 
house,  a  theatre  or  club  house,  a  hospital,  railroad  sta- 
tion or  what  else. 

Briefly  summarized,  these  principles  are  : 
i.  Soundness  of  Material. 


4OO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

2.  Perfection  in  Workmanship. 

3.  Simplicity  in  Arrangement. 

4.  Accessibility. 

5.  Safe  Trapping. 

6.  Thorough  Ventilation. 

7.  Efficient  Flushing. 

8.  Durability,  Efficiency  and  Convenience. 

9.  Noiselessness  in  Operation. 

10.  Prevention  of  Water  Waste  and  Protection 

against  Freezing. 

11.  Absence  of  Complicated  Mechanism. 

12.  Cleanliness  and  Purity.* 

The  details  of  the  arrangement  of  the  plumbing 
work  may  vary,  the  choice  of  the  supply  system  and 
the  selection  of  the  fixtures  best  adapted  to  each  class 
of  buildings  may  be  a  matter  requiring  skillful  treat- 
ment and  the  exercise  of  good  judgment  in  each  case, 
and  in  these  respects  each  building  may  present  a 
problem  in  itself,  but  the  general  requirements  as  to 
planning,  location,  materials,  workmanship  and  ar- 
rangement remain  always  the  same. 

It  has  become  quite  a  general  practice  in  some  of 
the  leading  architects'  offices,  to  have  this  part  of  the 
work  looked  after — from  its  conception  to  its  execu- 
tion— by  a  specialist,  and  house  owners  as  well  as 
house  builders  are  gradually  becoming  convinced  of 
the  utility  of  such  a  plan. 

It  has  been  my  good  fortune  in  the  past  years  to 


*  See  Chapter  VI.  for  detailed  explanations. 


TESTING    HOUSE    DRAINS    AND    PLUMBING    WORK.    401 

have  been  associated  with  many  prominent  architec- 
tural firms  in  this  branch  of  domestic  engineering. 
In  all  cases  I  have,  in  the  preparation  of  the  plans  and 
specifications  as  well  as  in  laying  out  the  work  in  the 
building  and  in  the  inspection  and  testing  of  the  same, 
endeavored  to  make  the  plumbing  work  conform  to 
the  above  outlined  requirements  or  principles,  and 
enforced  the  different  tests  which  are  so  necessary  to 
secure  good  and  safe  work. 

The  results  have  been  invariably  satisfactory  to  the 
owners.  Not  only  did  the  work  prove  a  success  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view,  but  repairs  to  plumbing 
work  so  arranged  have  been  much  fewer,  and  when 
required  they  have  been  less  costly  and  annoying, 
owing  largely  to  facility  of  access  and  simplicity  of 
arrangement,  both  of  which  are  points  in  which  mod- 
ern work  differs  considerably  from  old-fashioned  and 
obsolete  methods. 


XII. 

SIMPLIFIED  PLUMBING  METHODS. 


Modern  plumbing  work,  as  carried  out  by  the 
majority  of  plumbers  and  as  required,  with  only  very 
few  exceptions,  by  the  rules  and  regulations  of  Health 
or  Building  Departments,  is  open  to  one  serious  objec- 
tion, viz.:  It  is  unduly  complicated,  unnecessarily  elab- 
orate and  too  costly.  I  have,  for  many  years,  made 
strenuous  efforts  in  favor  of  a  simpler  but  equally  safe 
system.  Other  prominent  authorities  in  sanitary 
engineering  have,  from  time  to  time,  entered  protest 
against  the  prevailing  methods  of  doing  work. 
Among  architects,  builders  and  a  few  progressive 
plumbers  the  good  seed  scattered  has  taken  root,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  before  many  years  a  reaction  in 
favor  of  simpler  methods  and  rules  may  set  in. 

About  fifteen  years  ago  the  so-called  "  trap  venting 
law  "  was  first  inaugurated  in  New  York  City,  Bos- 
ton and  a  few  other  places.  This  law  requires  that 
"  all  traps  must  have  a  vent  pipe  of  suitable  size  con- 
nected at  or  near  the  crown  of  the  trap,  and  extended 
either  separately  up  to  the  roof  or  connected  with  the 
soil  or  waste  pipe  line  above  the  highest  fixture." 
Within  recent  years  a  great  many  of  the  smaller  cities 
and  towns  have  followed  the  example  of  the  larger 
cities  and  have  instituted  plumbing  rules  and  plumb- 
ing inspections.  Unfortunately,  in  the  majority  of 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  403 

cases  the  mistake  was  made  of  copying,  either  en- 
tirely or  partly,  the  rules  as  adopted  in  the  larger 
cities.  This  was  a  mistake,  at  least  as  far  as  the  trap 
venting  rule  was  concerned. 

I  am,  as  much  as  anybody,  in  favor  of  good,  sound, 
and  safe  plumbing  work.  Moreover,  I  have  no  per- 
sonal interest  in  any  patented  plumbing  device  or  in 
any  trap,  and  therefore  have  no  axe  to  grind.  My 
work  consists  largely  in  laying  out,  specifying,  arrang- 
ing and  superintending  the  plumbing  and  drainage 
work  of  public  and  private  buildings,  and  my  profes- 
sional reputation  (not  to  mention  my  business  pros- 
pects) would  be  at  stake  if  I  were  to  advocate  sys- 
tems or  methods  which  would  not  be  at  least  as  safe 
as  the  methods  recommended  or  insisted  upon  by 
Boards  of  Health. 

A  few  years  ago  I  defined  my  position  in  the  mat- 
ter of  trap  ventilation  in  an  article   in   the   American 
Architect,  which  I  quote  nearly  in  full  herewith  : 
"TRAP  VENTILATION." 

It  is,  in  my  judgment,  only  a  question  of  time  when  all  plumbing 
regulations  will  be  so  changed  as  to  leave  it  optional  with  the  owner 
or  architect  of  a  building  whether  to  "  back  air"  his  traps  or  to 
adopt  the  much  simpler  and  safer  system  of  non-siphoning  traps. 

I  have,  as  early  as  1884,  gone  on  record  as  being  opposed  to  any 
useless  and  expensive  system  of  trap  ventilation,  and  have  since  then 
repeatedly  asserted  my  belief  in,  and  preference  for,  non-siphoning 
traps  and  a  simpler  plumbing  system.  In  my  book  "  Hints  on  the 
Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  Dwellings,"  published  in  1884,  and  now 
out  of  print,  I  expressed  my  views  regarding  trap  ventilation  as  follows: 

While  admitting  that  such  air  pipes  render  S-traps  practically 
safe  against  most  of  the  above-made  objections,  it  cannot  be  denied, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  they  largely  increase  the  cost  of  plumbing  in 


404  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

dwellings,  especially  so,  where  fixtures  are  much  scattered  through- 
out the  house. 

First,  they  complicate  the  work  and  are  difficult  to  run  in  old 
buildings,  and  must  be  largely  increased,  in  the  case  of  high  build- 
ings, towards  the  upper  floors. 

Second,  they  increase  the  evaporation  of  water  in  traps,  and 
therefore  aggravate  the  danger  from  sewer  air  entering  through  fix- 
tures in  cases  where  these  remain  unused  for  a  long  time. 

Third,  it  is  quite  possible  that  vent  pipes  stop  up  in  time  at  the 
crown  of  the  trap  with  splashings  from  soap  suds,  when  they  will 
cease  to  furnish  air  to  break  the  vacuum.  Unluckily,  such  fact 
would  not  reveal  itself,  and  is  not  easily  detected,  nor  is  much  known 
at  the  present  time  about  this  point. 

The  literature  on  this  subject  has  been  lately  enriched  by  numer- 
ous careful  and  valuable  experiments  upon  the  siphonage  of  traps, 
made  by  Col.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  assisted  by  the  writer;  by 
Messrs.  Edward  S.  Philbrick,  C.  E.,  and  Ernest  W.  Bowditch,  C.  E., 
of  Boston;  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Hellyer,  of  London,  England;  Dr,  Lissauer, 
of  Dantzic,  Germany,  Dr.  Renk,  of  Munich,  Germany,  and  others. 

The  results  of  the  first  mentioned  experiments  are  greatly  at 
variance,  and  seem  to  indicate,  that  while  in  some  cases  traps  need 
a  strong  protection  against  siphonage,  in  other  cases,  especially 
where  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  have  ample  ventilation,  and  branch 
wastes  are  very  short,  such  protection  is  not  required.  At  any  rate, 
it  is  too  early  yet  to  establish  rules  which  apply  to  all  cases.  //  has 
always  seemed  to  me  as  if  it  would  be  feasible  to  Practice  a  wise  dis- 
crimination. 

Where  a  fixture  is  located  remote  from  a  vertical  pipe,  and  con- 
sequently discharges  through  a  long  run  of  waste  pipe,  which  would 
otherwise  form  a  *  dead  end,'  it  is  positively  necessary  to  run  a  vent 
pipe  from  the  crown  of  the  trap  upward  to  the  outer  air,  which  pre- 
vents in  the  first  place  a  stagnation  of  air,  and  at  the  same  time  stops 
siphonage;  and  this  is  true  of  any  kind  of  trap,  not  only  of  the  class 
known  as  S-traps;  it  should  apply  to  mechanical  traps  as  well. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  such  fixture  is  located  quite  near  to  a  ver- 
tical thoroughly  ventilated  soil  pipe  or  a  well  ventilated  horizontal 
run  of  pipe,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  place  under  the  fixture  a  trap 
which  is  not  easily  siphoned,  leaving  out  the  air  pipe  if  there  is  no 
vent  pipe  near  by  to  connect  with.  Such  a  course  seems  especially 
desirable  in  the  case  of  high  buildings  for  single  fixtures  in  base- 
ments or  on  lower  floors.  For  instance,  a  i^-inch  sink  trap  in  the 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  405 

basement  of  a  flat,  such  as  is  now  being  erected  in  New  York  City, 
200  feet  in  height,  would  require  an  air  pipe  at  least  three  or  four 
inches  in  diameter  to  prevent  siphonage,  the  friction  in  a  i|-  or  two- 
inch  pipe  200  feet  long  being  too  great  to  allow  the  air  to  enter 
quickly  enough  to  break  the  suction.  I  would  consider  it  foolish 
extravagance  to  use  such  long  length  of  pipe  of  such  large  size  for 
the  trap  of  only  a  single  sink.  If  a  non-siphoning  trap  could  not  be 
made  to  answer  the  purpose,  the  only  sensible  course  to  pursue  would 
be  to  abandon  such  fixture  entirely. 

I  must  further  say  that  it  seems  to  me  dangerous  to  use  vented 
S-traps  with  the  usual  water  seal  of  only  i^  or  two  inches  under 
bowls  or  tubs  in  spare  or  guest  rooms  of  large  city  residences,  and 
for  such  dwellings  generally  that  are  occupied  only  a  part  of  the  year. 
This  danger  is  generally  disregarded  or  passed  over  lightly  by  enthu- 
siasts for  '  back  air  '  piping.  My  personal  preference  in  such  cases 
would  always  be  for  a  non-siphoning  trap  with  a  water  seal  which 
does  not  so  easily  evaporate,  or  for  a  non-siphoning  trap  with  a 
mechanical  seal  against  gases  from  the  soil  pipe,  and  where  rules  of 
local  Boards  of  Health  would  demand  such  an  air  pipe  under  such 
conditions,  I  should  probably  advise  the  use  of  a  tight-shutting  stop- 
valve  on  the  waste  pipe,  and  combine  with  it  an  arrangement  for 
the  simultaneous  shutting  off  of  the  hot  and  cold  water  supply  to  the 
fixture,  so  as  to  render  an  overflow  impossible.  I  am  quite  ready  to 
admit  that  the  latter  arrangement  would  tend  to  complicate  the 
plumbing  work,  but,  I  think,  everybody  must  concede  that,  under 
the  conditions  mentioned,  it  would  be  safer  than  a  vented  S-trap  with 
the  usual  slight  seal. 

In  my  work  "  House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumb- 
ing," second  edition,  revised,  published  in  1884,  I  ex- 
pressed a  similar  opinion,  as  follows : 

It  is  always  costly  and  often  very  inconvenient  to  run  vent  pipes 
to  the  roof.  The  plumbing  work  is  greatly  complicated,  and  the 
number  of  joints  which  may  leak  sewer  air,  greatly  increased  by  trap 
ventilation.  There  is  also  danger  that  the  vent  pipes  for  traps  under 
tubs,  sinks  and  bowls  may  stop  up  with  soap  suds  or  grease,  in  which 
case  they  would  cease  to  act  properly.  The  continuous  current  of 
air  in  the  vent  pipe,  in  passing  over  the  water  in  the  trap,  undoubt- 
edly increases  its  evaporation.  Finally  it  becomes  necessary,  in  the 
case  of  high  buildings,  largely  to  increase  the  diameter  of  vent  pipes 


406  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

in  order  to  make  up  for  the  loss  through  friction  necessarily  occur- 
ing  with  long  air  pipes.  Therefore,  while  I  consider  vent  pipes  for 
traps  a  necessary  evil  in  many  cases,  especially  for  water  closet  traps, 
I  am  inclined,  in  other  cases,  to  prefer  a  good  non-siphoning  water 
seal  or  mechanical  trap,  provided  the  soil  and  waste  pipe  system  has 
ample  ventilation.  Such  a  mechanical  or  anti-siphoning  trap  may 
be  used  under  sinks,  tubs  and  bowls,  but  for  water  closets  and  slop 
hoppers  (if  without  a  strainer)  the  simple  lead  water  seal  trap  with 
vent  attached  is  the  only  safe  device,* 

In  an  article  published  in  the  Chicago  Inland  Ar- 
chitect, in  1885,  and  subsequently  reprinted  in  1887  *n 
my  book  "  Recent  Practice  in  the  Sanitary  Drainage 
of  Buildings,"  I  stated  as  follows  : 

Experiments  have  established,  with  a  sufficient  decree  of  certainty, 
the  fact  that  the  self-cleansing  siphon  or  running  trap,  cannot  be 
depended  upon  always  to  retain  its  water  seal  against  siphonage, 
unless  air  is  admitted  at  the  crown  and  sewer  side  of  the  trap,  either 
by  some  anti-siphoning  trap  attachment  or  by  a  so-called  "  back 
air  "  pipe  of  ample  size.  Consequently,  I  should  not  use  such  traps 
without  providing  such  protection  as  the  remedies  mentioned  afford. 
Later  experiments  have  shown  that  an  air  pipe  is  not  a  reliable  pro- 
tection against  siphonage  in  all  cases,  especially  where  the  course  of 
the  air  pipe  is  long  and  tortuous,  and  that  where  fixtures  are  not  in 
constant  use,  it  furthers  the  evaporation  of  water  in  the  traps,  and 
hence  endangers  the  safety  of  plumbing  work.  That  it  increases  the 
cost  of  plumbing  and  hinders  simplicity  of  arrangement,  must  be 
conceded  by  all.  Thus  while  it  offers  certain  advantages  in  some 
instances,  there  are  other  cases  where  the  disadvantages  predominate. 
It  remains  then,  to  be  decided,  only  after  a  thorough  and  intelligent 
consideration  of  all  conditions,  whether  a  seal-retaining  water-seal 
trap,  safe  against  back  pressure,  siphonage  or  other  influence,  or  an 
anti-siphoning  trap  attachment  of  some  kind,  may  not  be  preferable. 

In  an  article  on  "The  Drainage  of  a  House,"  pub- 
lished in  Boston  in  1888,  and  subsequently  reprinted 


"The  many  forms  of  excellent  siphon  and  siphon-jet  closets  BOW  obtainable  are  constructed 
with  a  very  deep  and  effective  trap  seal,  which  does  not  require  a  vent  pipe  where  the  piping  is 
otherwise  properly  arranged. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  407 

in   1890,  in  the  second  edition  of  the  book  "  Recent 
Practice,  etc.,"  I  stated  : 

From  my  best  knowledge  and  belief,  I  cannot  accept  as  univer- 
sally necessary  the  requirement  of  "  back  ventilation  "  of  traps. 
.  .  .  I  do  not  fail  to  explain  to  my  clients  that  the  back  airing  of 
traps  is  done  at  the  expense  of  simplicity;  that  in  a  properly  laid  out 
system,  trap  vent  pipes  are  not  necessary  to  prevent  dead  ends  in 
short  lateral  waste  pipes;  and  that  prevention  of  siphonage  can  be 
accomplished,  and  the  extra  cost  incurred  by  using  back  air  pipes  be 
saved  in  all  but  rare  instances,  by  adopting  simpler  and  well-known 
devices. 

Where  I  am  compelled  to  run  back  air  pipes,  complicating  the 
pipe  system,  it  is  always  my  endeavor  to  modify  the  arrangement  so 
as  not  to  expose  the  water  in  the  trap  too  much  to  the  air  current; 
for  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  thereby  increased  free  circula- 
tion of  air  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sealing  water  of  traps  hastens  the 
unsealing — by  evaporation — of  traps  under  fixtures  which  remain 
unused  for  some  days  in  succession,  and  endangers  the  security  of 
all  traps  during  any  period  when  a  house  is  left  unoccupied. 

I  am,  to-day,  more  than  ever  in  favor  of  simplify- 
ing the  plumbing-  work  of  buildings.  Anything  that 
helps  to  reduce  the  present  complicated  system  of 
piping,  while  at  the  same  time  retaining  the  safety  of 
the  system,  seems  to  me  to  be  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration. 

When  using  the  simple  S-trap,  I  provide,  as  every- 
body else  does,  the  "back  air  pipe  "  necessary  to  ren- 
der this  special  form  of  trap  safe  against  siphonage. 
But  I  have  long  ago  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
branch  pipe  ventilation  is  carried  much  too  far ;  that 
instead  of  giving  positive  security,  it  creates  new  and 
sometimes  serious  dangers,  and  that  it  also  entails  an 
unnecessary  and  useless  expenditure  of  money.  I 
hold,  it  is  time  that  this  matter  be  seriously  consid- 


408  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

ered  by  unprejudiced  and  unbiased  experts  and  sani- 
tarians. 

Briefly  stated,  the  objections  to  the  trap  vent  law 
are  as  follows  : 

(i.)  The  venting  of  traps  leads  to  a  greater  and 
sometimes  dangerous  complication  of  the  work. 

(2.)  It  involves  a  useless  outlay  of  money. 

(3  )  It  increases,  and  often  doubles,  the  number  of 
pipe  joints  in  a  building,  it  duplicates  the  pipe  sys- 
tem and  therefore  increases  the  danger  of  leakage  at 
the  joints. 

(4.)  Trap  vents  attached  to  the  horns  of  porcelain 
fixtures,  such  as  water  closets,  often  lead,  in  case  of 
settlement  of  the  building,  or  through  expansion,  to 
the  breakage  of  these  horns,  thus  opening  up  a  dan- 
gerous inlet  for  sewer  air,  the  crack  often  remaining 
unnoticed  for  years. 

(5.)  The  mouth  of  the  vent  pipe  at  the  point  where 
it  attaches  to  the  crown  of  the  trap,  is  liable  to  clog 
up  with  congealed  greasy  deposits,  rendering  the 
vent  pipe  useless  without  this  fact  becoming  apparent 
to  the  occupant  of  the  house. 

(6.)  The  upper  end  of  the  back  air  pipe,  where  it 
extends  separately  to  the  roof,  is  liable,  unless  en- 
larged to  at  least  four  inches  in  diameter,  to  be  closed 
up  with  snow  or  hoar  frost  in  winter  time. 

(7.)  Owing  to  the  increased  air  current  passing 
over  the  water  seal  of  the  trap,  and  induced  by  the 
vent  pipe,  the  destruction  of  the  water  seal  by  evap- 
oration is  much  more  rapid. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  409 

(8.)  The  trap-venting  system  affords  increased 
opportunities  for  bye-passes  in  the  case  of  careless 
or  ignorant  workmen.  In  my  examinations  of  the 
plumbing  of  houses  I  have  discovered  bye-passes 
even  where  such  work  was  done  under  Board  of 
Health  inspection. 

(9.)  In  the  case  of  long  vent  pipes,  particularly 
where  there  are  several  sharp  bends  in  the  pipe,  the 
friction  of  the  air  passing  through  the  pipe,  is  some- 
times increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  vent  pipe 
fails  to  protect  the  trap  from  siphonage. 

"  But,"  say  the  advocates  of  "trap  vent  pipes,  "  these 
pipes  are  not  only  put  in  to  prevent  siphonage.  They 
are  intended  equally  to  aerate  the  branch  waste  pipes 
and  to  produce  a  circulation  of  air  in  the  entire  sys- 
tem of  branches."  To  this  I  reply,  that  plumbing- 
work  can  and  should  be  always  skilfully  arranged 
and  planned,  so  that  the  fixtures  are  located  imme- 
diately adjoining  well-ventilated  soil  or  \vaste  pipe 
lines,  and  if  thus  arranged,  the  short  branches  are  so 
well  flushed  by  the  frequent  discharge  from  the  im- 
proved modern  fixtures  with  large  outlets — each 
of  which  constitutes  in  itself  a  small  flush  tank,  and 
only  such  should  be  considered  at  all — as  hardly  to 
require  any  other  purification  or  aeration.  Just  the 
moment,  however,  the  branch  wastes  become  long, 
owing -to  the  location  of  the  fixtures,  I  always  insist 
upon  the  proper  ventilation  of  the  branches  by  con- 
tinuing the  lateral  wastes  the  full  size  into  a  vertical 
line  which  is  carried  up  to  the  roof  the  same  as  the 
soil  pipe. 


4IO  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

To  illustrate  the  simplified  method  further,  I  sub- 
mit herewith  several  illustrations,  showing  the  proper 
arrangement  of  plumbing  work  and  of  the  piping 
without  the  use  of  "  back  air  "  pipes  attached  to  the 
traps.  The  traps  used  in  the  system  are  either  non- 
siphoning  water-sealed  traps  (not  mechanical  traps), 
or  anti-siphon  vent  attachments  to  the  S-traps,  or  else, 
in  the  case  of  water  closets,  common  S-traps  with 
such  a  depth  of  seal  that  the  ordinary  siphonage,  in- 
duced by  the  discharge  of  other  fixtures  (not  that 
induced  by  applying  a  suction  pump  to  the  plumbing 
and  creating  a  vacuum  in  the  pipes,  which  is  a  con- 
dition never  happening  in  a  well-arranged  plumbing 
system)  does  not  destroy  the  trap  seal. 

In  Fig.  90  I  illustrate  the  simple  case  of  several 
fixtures  on  two  floors  directly  over  each  other,  located 
close  to  a  well  aerated  soil  pipe  line.  Instead  of  an 
intricate  plumbing  system  with  a  hopelessly  con- 
fusing number  of  pipes,  we  obtain  a  simple  but  safe 
system  of  plumbing,  one  which,  to  my  mind,  is  vastly 
in  advance  of  the  ordinary  method  now  in  vogue. 
Whoever  would  call  such  a  system  a  defective  one  or 
consider  it  not  in  accordance  with  sanitary  require- 
ments, is  either  a  narrow-minded  ignoramus  or  else 
he  wilfully  misrepresents  true  and  undeniable  facts. 

In  Fig.  91  I  show  the  somewhat  more  elaborate 
case  of  a  group  of  lavatories  on  several  floors  of  a 
building.  The  pipe  line  A  is  the  vertical  waste  pipe, 
having  on  each  floor  a  two-inch  Y-branch  to  receive 
the  branch  wastes  from  the  wash  basins.  These 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS. 


411 


ft/Lt.  S/ZE 
noor  *m>  gv 
rni.er  /»r  FOOT  OF  £/"£• 


Fig.  90.— Section  through  bathroom  on  second  floor,  and  through  butler's  pantry  and  toilet 
room  on  first  floor,  showing  simplified  plumbing. 


412  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

I 


I2  I3  I*          I5 


JC/ILE  OF  DRAWING 


Fig.  91. — Plan  and  section,  showing  simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of  lavatories. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  413 

branch  wastes  D  are  two  inches  in  diameter  (or  larger 
than  each  basin  waste),  and  receive  by  means  of  two 
inch  by  i^-inch  Y-fittings  the  short  branches  from 
each  basin.  Each  basin  waste  is  trapped  by  a  i^--inch 
non-siphoning  trap  as  shown.  The  branch  waste 
does  not  form  a  dead  end  at  its  upper  part,  but  is 
continued,  by  pipe  C,  two-inches  in  diameter,  to  a 
vertical  straight  vent  line  B,  aerating  the  branch 
waste  lines. 

With  such  an  arrangement,  siphonage  is  impossible. 
If  basin  No.  i  is  discharged,  the  flow  of  water  in- 
duces an  air  current  through  pipe  D,  which  is  sup- 
plied through  pipe  J3,  and  the  traps  of  basins  Nos.  2, 
3  and  4  cannot  be  at  all  affected.  If  basin  No.  4  dis- 
charges, the  flow  of  water  passes  the  Y  branches  for 
basins  Nos.  i,  2  and  3,  and  an  air  current  from  pipe 
B  follows.  Again,  should  several  basins  on  the  upper 
floor  be  discharged  through  pipe  line  A,  an  air  cur- 
rent is  induced  from  the  upper  extension  of  pipe  A, 
also  from  pipe  D  and  B,  and  when  the  column  of 
water  passes  the  two-inch  Y  branches  on  the  floor 
below,  air  also  follows  from  pipe  D  and  B. 

In  Figs.  92  and  93  is  illustrated  the  arrangement  of 
a  row  of  fixtures,  namely,  two  water  closets,  one  basin 
and  one  bathtub,  on  a  floor,  all  wasting  to  a  five-inch 
soil  pipe  B.  On  the  next  floor  above  are  supposed  to 
be  a  similar  number  of  fixtures.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  lateral  five-inch  soil  pipe  branch  is  continued  the 
full  size — not  reduced — receiving  the  basin  and  bath 
wastes  each  by  a  separate  five-inch  by  two-inch  Y 


414 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS. 


415 


4i6 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


branch,  and  then  it  is  continued  up  above  the  over- 
flow point  of  these  fixtures  and  connects  with  a  ver- 
tical line  of  five-inch  vent  pipe.  The  bath  and  basin 
are  each  trapped  by  a  non-siphoning  trap,  and  the 
water  closets  are  siphon  or  siphon-jet  closets  with  a 
deep  trap  seal.  Branch  venting  is  entirely  done  away 
with  and  the  plumbing  simplified  correspondingly. 

When  one  or  both  closets  are  discharged,  air  fol- 
lows through  pipe  D  and  A,  and  the  traps  of  basin 


Fig.  94. — Plan  of  bathroom  (the  section  and  arrangement  of  the  plumbing  for 
same  are  shown  in  Fig.  95.) 

or  bath  cannot  be  affected.  The  same  is  true  when  a 
discharge  occurs  through  soil  pipe  B  from  the  fixtures 
on  the  upper  floor. 

The  arrangement  of  the  piping  for  a  group  of  single 
bathrooms,  located  vertically  over  each  other  (as  in 
the  case  of  apartment  houses),  is  shown  in  Figs.  94  and 
95.  The  plan,  Fig.  94,  shows  the  bathroom  to  contain 
three  plumbing  fixtures,  viz.:  a  water  closet,  a  bath- 
tub and  a'washstand.  The  open  arrangement  of  the 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS. 


417 


Fig.  95. — Section  of  simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of  bathrooms  located  vertically 
over  each  other. 


41 8  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

fixtures  is  shown  in  vertical  section,  in  Fig.  95.  All 
fixtures  waste  into  a  vertical  soil  pipe  line,  five  inches 
in  diameter,  placed  in  a  recess  of  the  outer  \vall  near 
the  bathroom  window.  Near  the  ceiling  of  each  floor 
the  main  soil  pipe  has  a  five  by  four-inch  T-Y  branch, 
and  a  four-inch  horizontal  Y-fitting  receives  the 
branch  from  the  water  closet.  Beyond  this  connec- 
tion the  horizontal  branch  is  reduced  to  three  inches 
in  diameter  and  is  continued  along  the  ceiling  to  a 
point  in  a  closet  near  the  basin  where  it  rises  verti- 
cally to  a  height  above  the  overflow  point  of  the 
wash  basin  and  then  connects  with  a  main  vertical 
vent  line,  three  inches  in  diameter.  The  bathtub 
wastes  by  a  two-inch  branch  into  the  horizontal  three- 
inch  line,  and  the  i^-inch  washbasin  waste  discharges 
into  the  vertical  branch  of  the  three-inch  line,  in  order 
to  wash  out  any  rust  which  may  lodge  at  the  point 
where  the  horizontal  and  vertical  parts  of  the  line  con- 
nect. On  the  next  floor  the  arrangement  is  identi- 
cally the  same. 

When  the  plumbing  fixtures  and  their  piping  are 
arranged  in  the  manner  shown,  there  cannot  be  any 
danger  of  siphonage.  No  matter  what  fixture  is  dis- 
charged, provision  is  made  for  sufficient  air  supply  to 
prevent  any  siphoning  action  upon  the  traps  of  ad- 
joining fixtures.  The  piping  consists  essentially  of  a 
stack  of  soil  pipe  five  inches  in  diameter,  a  stack  of 
vent  pipe  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  horizontal 
three-inch  branch  connecting  with  both  ;  each  fixture 
is  located  within  a  few  feet  of  a  ventilated  line,  while 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  419 

all  branch  vent  pipes  are  omitted  as  being-  unneces- 
sary, and  thus  the  plumbing  becomes  very  much 
simplified. 

In  my  practice,  wherever  1  am  left  untrammeled 
by  Board  of  Health  regulations,  I  use  this,  to  my  mind 
vastly  superior,  because  safer,  simpler  and  cheaper 
system,  and  by  numerous  experiments  I  have  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  no  siphonage  can  occur,  and  that 
the  system  is  secure  and  efficient. 

Let  architects,  builders  and  sanitary  engineers  but 
once  try  this  system,  and  I  am  sure,  if  their  judgment 
is  unbiased,  they  will  be  convinced  of  the  merits  and 
simplicity  of  the  new  method. 

A  few  good  rules  to  observe  in  planning  plumbing 

pipe  systems  according  to  the  method  advocated,  are  : 

(i.)   Always  avoid  those  conditions  which  favor 

siphonage. 

(2.)   Do  not  make  the  soil  pipes  too  small. 
(3.)  Never  join  small  branch   wastes  together, 
but  give   to  each  an  independent  outlet 
into  the  larger  waste  or  soil  pipe. 
(4.)   Avoid  al!  long  dead  ends. 
(5.)   Use  traps  or  trap  devices  which  maintain  a 
water-seal  under  all  ordinary  conditions. 
One  possible  drawback  lies  in  the  fact   that  nearly 
all  the  non-siphoning  traps  at  present  obtainable  in 
the  market,  are  not  fully  self-cleansing.     But  then  all 
traps  in  a  house  should  anyway  be  cleaned  out  from 
time  to  time,  so  that  this  reduces  the  force  of  the 
objection.     At   the  same  time,   a  hint  is  contained 


42O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

herein  to  inventors,  who  would,  I  believe,  find  ample 
ultimate  remuneration  by  devoting  their  energies  to 
the  invention  of  a  self-cleansing  non-siphoning  trap. 

In  my  judgment,  the  authorities  who  make  the 
plumbing  laws  should  keep  themselves  thoroughly 
posted  about  the  progress  of  the  art,  and  should 
examine,  without  fear  or  favor,  all  devices  calculated 
to  preserve  and  maintain  a  sound  water-seal  against 
any  possible  air  disturbances  in  the  soil  pipe  sys- 
tem. 

I  claim  that  the  rules  drafted  should  be  such  as  to 
secure  a  system  which  is  as  simple  as  possible  con- 
sistent with  security  and  efficiency.  Security  against 
back-pressure,  self-siphonage  or  loss  by  momentum, 
siphonage,  evaporation  and  loss  of  seal  by  capillary 
attraction  are  the  chief  requirements  and  these  are 
unquestionably  attained  by  the  method  described. 
If  the  process  of  simplification  should  tend  to  give  us 
even  greater  security,  so  much  more  will  be  gained. 
Caeteris  paribus,  the  simplest  and  least  costly  system 
must  necessarily  be  adjudged  the  best. 

The  trap  vent  law  will,  in  my  judgment,  ultimately 
be  repealed.  Simpler  and  better  methods  will  take 
its  place.  The  first  initiative  step  to  be  taken  con- 
sists in  so  modifying  the  present  law,  as  to  leave  the 
option  with  the  owners,  architects  or  sanitary  en- 
gineers of  buildings  to  choose  between  the  simpler, 
better  and  less  expensive,  advanced  method,  or  the 
antiquated,  costly  and  in  a  good  many  respects, 
unsafe  method. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  42 1 

The  simplification  of  plumbing  methods  advocated 
in  the  preceding  pages,  is  to  my  mind,  of  such  im- 
portance as  to  render  it  of  interest  to  read  in  this  con- 
nection some  of  the  verdicts  as  passed  upon  the  same 
by  the  technical  press.  I  offer  no  apology  for  reprint- 
ing them  in  full. 

One  of  the  leading  architectural  papers  in  the 
United  States,  the  American  Architect,  of  Boston,  ex- 
pressed itself  in  its  issue  of  January  30,  1897,  as 
follows  : 

It  is  always  a  pleasure  to  architects  to  read  what  Mr.  William  Paul 
Gerhard  writes  on  matters  of  sanitation.  Alone,  almost,  among  those 
who  treat  of  such  subjects  in  these  days,  he  writes  like  an  engineer 
familiar  with  all  methods  and  appliances  in  use,  judging  them  with 
the  aid  of  long  experience  and  thorough  theoretical  knowledge,  and 
dispassionately  choosing  what  he  believes  to  be  the  best  thing  attain- 
able, without  any  reservations,  exaggerations  and  misrepresentations 
on  behalf  of  pet  theories,  or  the  private  interest  of  himself  or  his 
friends.  For  this  reason  it  is  particularly  noteworthy  that  he  should 
have  come  out  in  this  little  pamphlet  of  a  dozen  pages  against  the 
system  of  indiscriminate  trap  venting  which  is  now  imposed  by  law 
on  architects  and  plumbers  in  most  of  our  large  cities.  It  has  long 
been  understood  that  Mr.  Gerhard  did  not  favor  indiscriminate 
trap  venting,  but,  like  the  other  professional  men  concerned  with 
building  matters,  he  has  found  it  best  to  sacrifice  his  private  opinions 
and  submit  quietly  to  the  law,  and  it  is  only  a  growing  conviction  of 
the  danger  to  health  involved  in  the  multiplication  of  pipes  and 
joints  which  the  laws  render  compulsory,  that  can  have  led  him  to 
protest  publicly  against  the  enforced  use  of  the  present  "  antiquated, 
costly  and  in  a  good  many  respects  unsafe  methods."  The  reasons 
which  he  gives  for  this  protest  are  convincing  enough  to  all  those 
who  have  to  do  with  building.  As  architects  know,  in  the  execution 
of  a  complicated  piece  of  plumbing  work  under  the  present  law,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  avoid  such  intercommunication  of  waste  pipes 
and  vent  pipes  as  to  form  here  and  there  a  "  bye-pass,"  or  in  other 
words,  an  open  conduit  for  leading  sewer  air  from  the  waste  pipes 
directly  into  the  rooms  around  the  traps.  Many  a  plumbing  plan  is 


422  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

rejected  by  Boards  of  Health,  because  it  provides,  of  course  unin- 
tentionally, for  such  a  bye-pass  at  the  outset,  and  many  more  sys- 
tems, properly  planned,  are  rendered  dangerous  by  the  carelessness 
of  workmen  in  making  connections.  The  only  real  reason  that  has 
ever  existed  for  back-venting  traps  was  to  prevent  them  from  being 
siphoned  out  by  the  suction  from  a  main  waste  pipe  discharging 
water  enough  nearly  to  fill  it.  Twenty  years  ago,  when  S-traps  were 
in  common  use,  this  was  a  valid  reason;  but  now,  when  non-siphon- 
ing traps  are  almost  universally  employed,  there  is  no  advantage  in 
the  venting  system  which  cannot  be  better  secured  by  using  a  five- 
inch  soil  pipe  in  place  of  a  four-inch,  carrying  up  the  longer 
branches  to  the  roof,  and  placing  modern  traps  under  the  fixtures. 
There  is,  of  course,  no  objection  to  back-venting  a  trap,  especially  if 
its  situation,  or  other  circumstances,  should  render  this  desirable; 
but  this  ought,  as  Mr.  Gerhard  says,  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  architect  or  engineer,  or,  if  desirable,  to  that  of  the  official  in- 
spector. 

The  Engineering  Magazine,  of  March,  1897,  says 
editorially  as  follows  : 

"A  PLEA  FOR  SIMPLICITY  IN  PLUMBING  WORK." 
We  are  in  receipt  of  a  pamphlet  written  by  Mr.  William  Paul 
Gerhard,  a  civil  engineer  who  has  given  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
the  heating,  ventilation,  drainage  and  sanitation  of  dwellings  and 
public  buildings,  and  who  has  made  a  specialty  of  sanitary  engineer- 
ing. Mr.  Gerhard  is  also  widely  and  favorably  known  from  his 
numerous  treatises  and  papers  on  sanitation  and  kindred  topics ; 
therefore,  the  opinion  he  expresses  in  the  particular  pamphlet  here 
noticed,  entitled  "  Plumbing  Simplified,"  will  command  attention. 

Doubtless  the  view  that  a  simpler  and  less  costly  system  of 
plumbing  than  is  now  practiced  can  be  made  equally  serviceable  and 
effective  will  be  combated,  especially  by  those  whose  commercial  in- 
terests lie  in  maintaining  the  use  of  current  appliances. 

If,  however,  Mr.  Gerhard  has  fortified  his  view  by  irrefragible 
arguments,  the  employment  of  simpler  modes  will  be  only  a  question 
of  time.  Early  in  his  essay  the  author  makes  his  avowal  of  his  ad- 
vocacy of  good,  sound  and  safe  plumbing  work,  and  puts  in  a  dis- 
claimer of  any  "  personal  interest  in  any  patented  plumbing  device 
or  in  a  special  trap,"  thus  defending  himself  in  advance  against  the 
suspicion  that  his  views  are  biased  by  motives  which  such  an  in- 
terest might  create.  .  .  .  The  paper  is  both  progressive  and 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  423 

aggressive.  It  closes  with  a  prediction  that  "  the  trap  vent  law  will 
ultimately  be  repealed,  and  that  simpler  and  better  methods  will  take 
its  place."  If  the  system  proposed  by  Mr.  Gerhard  is  better  than, 
or  even  as  good  as,  the  trap  vent  system,  its  superior  cheapness  is 
sure  to  bring  it  to  the  front. 

An  editorial  published  in  the  Journal of 'the  Ameri- 
can Medical  Association,  of  April  10,  1897,  contained 
the  following  : 

And  now  comes  a  sanitary  engineer  of  prominence,  Mr.  William 
Paul  Gerhard,  of  New  York,  who  is  led  by  years  of  observation  to 
believe  that  the  trap  venting  law  is  a  mistake  which  will  ultimately 
be  remedied  by  repeal.  He  makes  use  of  non-siphoning  water- 
sealed  traps  and,  in  case  of  water  closets,  common  S-traps  with  such 
a  depth  of  trap  seal  as  will  not  be  destroyed  by  the  discharge  of 
other  fixtures.  In  a  small  building  having  only  one  or  two  fixtures 
on  each  floor,  he  leads  each  waste  into  the  vertical  soil  pipe  by  a 
separate  entrance,  and  when  untrammeled  by  plumbing  regulations, 
does  away  with  the  separate  vent  pipe  for  each  trap,  maintaining 
that  the  air  movement  through  the  soil  pipe  will  prevent  siphonage 
and  that  the  rush  of  liquid  through  the  short  wastes  will  keep  their 
interior  clean  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  vents  or  ventilation. 
In  a  large  building  where  several  water  closets,  basins  and  baths  are 
aggregated  on  each  floor  he  leads  each  waste  by  a  separate  opening 
into  the  branch  of  the  soil  pipe.  This  branch  does  not  begin  by  a 
dead  end  at  the  distal  fixture,  but  by  an  open  end  above  the  roof, 
whence  it  descends  of  full  size  to  its  junction  with  the  soil  pipe,  re- 
ceiving its  separate  wastes  near  this  junction.  Its  free  opening 
above  enables  it  to  act  as  a  vent  for  the  traps  connected  with  it, 
while  its  communication  below  with  the  ventilated  soil  pipe  ghes 
free  passage  to  an  air  movement  through  it.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  this  air  movement  will  be  as  free  as  that  through  the  direct  ver- 
tical extension  of  the  soil  pipe,  but  the  frequency  with  which  the 
branch  is  flushed  by  the  use  of  its  fixtures  keeps  it  practically  clean. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  separate  venting  of  each  trap  com- 
plicates the  piping  and  adds  largely  to  the  expense  of  our  present 
system  of  plumbing.  If  Mr.  Gerhard's  experience  is  sustained  by 
further  investigation  an  important  modification  of  the  plumbing 
regulations  would  be  warranted.  Ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  every  sani- 
tarian would  have  protested  against  a  proposition  to  modify  them, 


424  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

and  even  now  many  who  have  not  given  this  subject  consideration 
would  no  doubt  promptly  vote  it  down  as  a  backward  step  in  the 
progress  of  modern  sanitation;  but  we  must  remember  that  the  pres- 
ent regulations  with  their  positive  requirement  of  a  vent  for  every 
trap  were  formulated  when  sewer  air  was  regarded  as  sui  generis  in 
its  deadly  and  penetrating  qualities,  and  when  it  was  considered  that 
any  deviation  from  the  accepted  system  might  be  followed  by  the 
most  dangerous  consequences.  In  effecting  protection  at  that  time 
it  is  possible  that  the  pendulum  may  have  swung  too  far  to  one  side. 
When  a  proposition  of  this  kind  comes  from  an  experienced 
worker  and  observer  in  this  particular  field  of  sanitation  it  might 
be  well  for  municipal  authorities  to  consider  the  subject  with  a  view 
to  determining  whether  security  with  simplification  and  materially 
lessened  expense  might  not  be  attained  by  a  revision  of  their  plumb- 
ing regulations. 

Finally,  I  quote  the  opinion  expressed  by  the  Lon- 
don Building  News,  of  February  12,  1897  : 

Mr.  William  Paul  Gerhard,  C.  E.,  consulting  engineer,  New  York, 
has  written  a  sensible  little  brochure  under  this  title.  He  observes 
that  modern  plumbing  work,  as  carried  out  in  the  States,  and  as  re- 
quired by  the  rules  of  health  and  building  departments,  is  open  to  the 
objection  that  it  is  unduly  complicated  and  costly.  The  "  trap  vent- 
ing law  "  in  New  York,  Boston  and  other  places,  requires  that  all 
traps  must  have  a  "  vent  pipe  connected  at,  or  near  the  crown  of  the 
trap,  and  extended  either  separately  up  to  the  roof,  or  connected 
with  the  soil  pipe  line  above  the  highest  fixture."  This  rule  has  been 
followed  generally  in  both  large  and  small  cities.  Mr.  Gerhard,  who 
is  an  acknowledged  authority  on  the  subject  of  sanitary  matters,  says 
the  branch  trap  ventilation  is  carried  too  far,  that  it  creates  new  and 
serious  dangers  and  is  costly.  .  .  .  Mr.  Gerhard's  system  is  cer- 
tainly worth  the  attention  of  all  plumbers  and  sanitary  authorities, 
especially  those  in  the  States.  The  system  as  shown  avoids  siphon- 
age,  as  air  follows  the  discharge  action  in  all  the  pipes,  and  the  avoid- 
ance of  the  back-air  pipe,  with  all  its  attendant  joints  and  complica- 
tions, much  simplifies  the  arrangement.  Many  of  the  imperfect 
systems  in  use  are  owing  to  the  following  of  rules  which  were  well 
intended  at  the  outset,  but  which  are  not  applicable  to  ordinary 
cases.  The  small  soil  pipes,  long  branch  pipes  without  an  independ- 
ent outlet,  dead  ends,  are  the  sources  of  much  trouble;  and  the 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  425 

author  has,  by  simply  giving  each  pipe  a  free  current  of  air  through 
it,  and  by  connecting  the  branch  pipe  with  the  vertical  lines  of  soil 
or  waste  of  the  same  size,  shown  how  a  building  may  be  effectually 
drained.  The  article  is  worth  attention  by  the  authorities  and  by 
the  profession  generally,  and  those  who  desire  to  simplify  existing 
sanitary  construction. 


Since  my  article  on  "  Plumbing-  Simplified  "  was 
published,  many  local  Boards  of  Health  and  plumb- 
ing -inspectors  have  written  me  and  conferred  with 
me  in  regard  to  the  matter.  Several  cities  have 
amended  their  plumbing  regulations  in  accordance 
with  the  methods  suggested,  and  others  have  ap- 
pointed committees  to  revise  their  rules. 

In  December,  1896,  the  town  authorities  of  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  appointed  a  special  committee  for  this 
purpose,  and  from  the  report  rendered  on  this  sub- 
ject by  Mr.  William  Atkinson,  architect,  of  Boston, 
which  suggests  the  amendment  of  the  present  laws, 
so  that  in  certain  cases  air  pipes  to  traps  shall  not  be 
required,  I  quote  the  following  : 

Our  plumbing  regulations  provide  that  "traps  shall  be  protected 
from  siphonage  or  air  pressure  by  special  cast  iron  air  pipes  of  a  size 
not  less  than  the  waste  pipes  they  serve,  to  run  from  the  cro""n  of 
the  trap.  The  use  of  the  separate  air  pipes  to  traps,  or  the  "  back- 
venting  "  of  traps,  as  it  is  called,  is  advocated  for  two  reasons: 

First  —  To  prevent  traps  from  being  forced  by  siphonage  or  back 
pressure. 

Second  —  To  aerate  the  traps  and  the  branch  waste  pipes  to  which 
they  are  connected. 

In  regard  to  the  first  reason  I  find  that  the  same  object  may  be 
accomplished  by  less  complicated,  and  therefore  better,  methods 
In  regard  to  the  second  reason  I  find  that  the  aeration  of  traps  and 
short  connecting  lines  of  waste  pipe  is  sufficiently  accomplished  by 


426  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

the  influx  of  fresh  air  which  accompanies  every  discharge  of  waste 
water  through  them. 

The  reasons  why  back-air  pipes  should  be  discarded,  provided 
that  there  exist  simpler  methods  of  accomplishing  the  same  ends,  are 
as  follows: 

First — They  increase  the  liability  of  traps  to  loss  of  seal  by 
evaporation. 

Second — They  afford  opportunities  for  making  "  bye-passes." 

Third — They  increase  the  amount  of  piping  and  the  number  of 
pipe  joints,  thus  making  more  plumbing  to  look  after  and  keep  in 
repair. 

Fourth — They  increase  the  cost  of  plumbing. 

But  the  most  serious  objection  to  "  back-venting  "  is,  that  by  pro- 
moting evaporation  of  the  water  seal,  it  actually  makes  traps,  in 
many  cases,  a  less  secure  barrier  to  the  entrance  of  vitiated  air  into 
our  dwellings  than  they  would  be  without  it.  In  ordinary  S-traps 
"  loss  of  seal  by  evaporation  will  occur  in  about  two  months  if  the  trap 
is  not  ventilated,  and  in  about  two  weeks  if  it  is  ventilated."  In  win- 
ter the  evaporation  produced  by  ventilation  is  so  rapid  as  to  destroy 
the  seal  of  an  ordinary  i^-inch  machine-made  S-trap  in  from  four  to 
eleven  days,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  current. 

It  therefore  appears  that  where  the  traps  are  "  back-vented,"  they 
ought  to  be  flushed  with  water  at  least  once  in  every  four  days; 
whereas,  when  unvented  they  may  be  left  unused  for  two  months 
without  danger.  Now  there  are  many  cases  where  plumbing  fixtures 
are  likely  to  remain  more  than  four  days  without  being  used.  In 
such  cases  "  back-venting  "  becomes  a  serious  danger. 

With  so  many  reasons  against  "  back-venting  "  it  would  seem  to  be 
important  to  examine  into  the  subject  to  see  if  it  is  really  necessary 
in  all  cases,  especially  as  it  is  contended  by  eminent  sanitary  authori- 
ties that  it  is  not. 

The  most  reliable  lecorded  experiments  bearing  upon  this  subject 
are  those  of  Messrs.  Putnam  and  Rice  above  referred  to,  a^d  those 
of  Mr.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  and  Messrs.  Edward  S.  Philbrick  and 
Ernest  W.  Bowditch  These  experiments  show  the  following  facts: 

1.  Small  S-traps  and  certain  forms  of  water  closet  traps  are  very 
weak  in  resisting  siphonage. 

2.  "  Round  traps ''  and  certain  modified  forms  of  the  S-trap  are 
very  strong  in  resisting  siphonage. 

3.  *'  Back -venting  ''  increases  the  resistance  of  S  traps  to  siphonage. 

4.  '  Round  traps  "  unvented  are   stronger  in  resisting  siphonage 
than  S-traps  "  back  vented." 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  427 

5.  The  efficiency   of   "  back-venting  "  decreases  as  the  length  of 
the  vent  pipe  is  increased. 

6.  Any  kind  of  a  water-seal  trap,  whether  "  back-vented  "  or  not, 
can  be  siphoned  out,  provided  the  test  is  severe  enough. 

7.  Ventilation  of  the  main  stack  of  soil  pipe  at  the  top  and  bottom 
considerably  reduces  siphonic  action. 

8.  The  provision  of  an  independent  waste  pipe  for  each  trap  con- 
siderably reduces  siphonic  action. 

9.  Making  the  main  stack  of  soil  pipe  of  larger  diameter  than  any 
of  the  trap  waste  pipes  considerably  reduces  siphonic  action. 

10.  Traps  may  be   made  to  resist  "  back-  pressure  "   by   a   proper 
length  of  inlet  pipe. 

11.  "Back-pressure"    may  be   reduced  to  almost  nothing  if  the 
piping  is  properly  designed. 

These  experiments  do  not  give  any  information  as  to  the  follow 
ing  points: 

1.  Whether  or  not  the   efficiency  of  round  traps   is  increased  by 
"  back-venting  "  and  to  what  extent,  if  it  is  increased. 

2.  The  comparative  efficiency  of  different  kinds  of  water  closet 
traps  in  resisting  siphonage. 

3.  The  effect  of  siphonic  action  on  traps  located  above  the  fixture 
producing  the  siphonic  action. 

4.  The  effect  of  siphonic  action  on  traps  located  on  horizontal  or 
inclined  lines  of  waste  pipe. 

5.  To  what  extent  siphonic  action  may  be  reduced  by  varying  the 
inclination  of  the  waste  pipes  of  the  fixtures. 

6.  To  what  extent  siphonic  action  may  be  reduced  by  making  the 
trap  outlet  larger  than  the  inlet  pipe. 

7.  While  these  experiments  show  at  least  three  different  methods, 
other  than  "  back-venting,"  by  which   siphonic  action  may  be  re- 
duced, yet  they  do  not  show  to  what  extent  it  may  be  reduced  by  an 
intelligent  combination  of  all  these  methods. 

Mr.  Waring's  conclusion  was  "  that  the  separate  ventilation  of 
traps  where  the  main  soil  pipe  is  four  inches  in  diameter  and  open  at 
the  top  and  bottom,  is  unnecessary."  In  the  report  of  Messrs.  Phil- 
brick  and  Bowditch,  after  a  general  statement  of  the  facts  ascertained 
by  the  experiments,  the  following  recommendations  are  made: 
"  The  ordinary  S-trap  alone,  with  ample  air  vent,  is  recommended 
for  use  under  water  closets  and  for  all  fixtures  where  its  proper  ven- 
tilation can  be  secured  within  reasonable  limits  of  expense.  The 
proper  size  and  length  of  such  vent  pipes  must  be  largely  a  matter  of 


428  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

judgment."  It  is  then  stated  that  the  "back-venting"  of  round 
traps  is  "  of  doubtful  utility."  After  a  statement  of  certain  objec- 
tions to  round  traps  (which  objections,  however,  have  since  been 
overcome  by  improvements  in  its  design)  it  is  stated  that  they  "  may 
often  be  properly  used,  however,  in  old  houses,  in  places  where  the 
introduction  of  a  vent  might  be  inconvenient  or  costly."  It  is  then 
stated  that  "  the  best  and  most  simple  remedy  for  the  siphoning  of 
traps  in  most  cases  is  undoubtedly  to  be  found  in  the  introduction 
of  air  at  the  normal  pressure  at  the  crown  of  the  trap,"  but  that  "no 
definite  rules  can  be  given  for  the  size  or  length  of  vent  pipes." 
If  it  is  true  that  "  back-venting  "  is  not  of  such  importance, 
but  that  considerations  of  expense  and  convenience  may  sometimes 
outweigh  it,  and  if  in  some  cases  it  is  of  doubtful  utility,  and  if  it  is 
true  that  no  definite  rules  can  be  given  for  applying  it,  and  that  in 
many  cases  it  is  a  matter  of  judgment  whether  it  ought  to  be  em- 
ployed or  not,  then  it  seems  to  me  that  a  law  which  requires  the 
"back  venting"  of  all  traps  indiscriminately,  is  in  need  of  amend- 
ment. The  only  reason  which  can  be  brought  forward  in  support  of 
such  a  requirement  is  the  supposed  necessity  for  providing  more 
aeration  for  the  traps  than  they  would  otherwise  get.  I  can  find  no 
facts  to  support  this  contention.  It  appears  to  be  entirely  a  matter 
of  theory.  On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  clearly  shown  that  this 
very  aeration  of  the  trap  by  "  back-venting  "  induces  a  rapid  loss  of 
its  water-seal  by  evaporation. 

Having  now  examined  at  some  length  into  the  two  reasons  for 
which  "  back-venting  "  is  advocated,  I  venture  to  submit  the  two 
following  propositions: 

1.  That  no  trap  ought  to  be  used  in  plumbing  that  requires  to  be 
"back-vented  "  to  protect  it  from  siphonage. 

2.  That  it  is  better  plumbing  practice  to  dispense  with  the  uncer- 
tain benefits  of  "back-venting  "  in  aerating  the  trap  rather  than  incur 
the  certain  danger  of  loss  of  seal  by- evaporation  which  "back-vent- 
ing "  involves. 

That  the  "back-vent  "  law  is  in  urgent  need  of  revision  is  amply 
shown,  I  think,  by  the  following  extracts  from  recent  correspondence 
on  the  subject: 

Mr.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr  ,  wrote  me  as  follows   (May,  21,  1897): 

"  Continued  experience  and  observation  tend   more  and  more  to 

confirm  my  opinion  that  the  '  back-venting '  of  traps,  aside  from  its 

great  cost,  does  more  harm  than   good.     That   is  to  say,    a  trap  is 

more  likely  to  lose  its  seal  if  it  is  back-vented  than  if  it  is  not." 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  429 

Mr.  Frederic  Tudor  wrote  me  as  follows  (May  26,  1897): 

"The  whole  subject  demands  exhaustive  investigation  and  amend- 
ment of  the  law  to  suit  the  facts  ascertained." 

Mr.  William  Paul  Gerhard  wrote   me  as  follows  (June  26,  1887): 

"  I  am  heartily  in  sympathy  with  your  effort  to  improve  the  pres- 
ent regulations,  particularly  as  to  the  rules  requiring  every  trap  to  be 
back-vented  at  the  crown." 

A  number  of  cities  and  towns  already  exempt  certain  traps  from 
"back-venting,"  viz.:  Providence,  R.  I. ;  Newport,  R.  I.;  Pawtucket, 
R.  I.;  Greenfield,  Mass.;  Rochester,  N.  Y.;  Elmira,  N.  Y.;  Hor- 
nellsville,  N.  Y. ;  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Duluth,  Minn.;  Minneapolis, 
Minn.;  Denver,  Col.;  Sacramento,  Cal. ;  Chicago,  111. 

Our  own  law  exempts  certain  cases  in  repair  work  in  old  buildings. 

It  has  thus  been  widely  recognized,  even  in  plumbing  laws,  that 
there  are  some  cases  in  which  "  back-venting  "  is  unnecessary. 

From  an  annual  report  of  the  Plumbing  Inspector 
of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  I  take  the  following  remarks  re- 
garding the  ventilation  of  traps  : 

I  have  made  a  somewhat  limited  examination  of  the  practical  effect 
and  desirability  of  the  present  system  of  so-called  trap  ventilation. 
My  investigations  confirm  the  opinion  I  have  held  for  some  time, 
that  the  crown  or  back-venting  of  traps,  as  now  practiced,  is  worse 
than  useless,  and  its  attendant  heavy  expense  to  builders  is  very 
often  the  cause  of  curtailing  a  large  amount  of  necessary  plumbing 
work.  The  most  serious  objection,  however,  to  this  pernicious  cus- 
tom is  the  sense  of  false  security  given  to  the  owner  or  tenant  of  a 
house  provided  with  so-called  modern  plumbing. 

I  made  examinations  in  twenty-three  houses,  the  plumbing  work 
in  which  was  done  in  the  very  best  and  most  workmanlike  manner, 
all  of  them  having  been  constructed  within  the  last  seven  years,  in 
conformity  with  the  ordinance  governing  plumbing.  In  twelve  of 
the  houses  examined  I  found  all  of  the  vent  pipes  from  traps  under 
kitchen  sinks  completely  stopped  by  congealed  grease  and  particles 
of  vegetable  matter  for  a  space  from  three  inches  to  a  foot  above  the 
crown  of  the  traps  which  they  were  supposed  to  "ventilate."  In 
most  cases  a  strong  wire  was  required  to  dislodge  the  obstruction. 

Of  the  other  eleven  kitchen  sink  traps  examined,  I  found  only  one 
that  was  perfectly  clear,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  trap  vents  in  this 
house  were  found  in  the  same  condition,  including  the  water  closet 


43O  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

vent.  ...  In  seven  of  the  houses  I  found  a  soft,  slimy  sub- 
stance adhering  to  the  interior  surface  of  the  vent  pipes  for  two  or 
three  inches  above  the  crown  of  the  trap.  While  the  stoppage  was 
not  complete,  there  was  every  indication  that  an  entire  obstruction 
would  soon  result.  The  remaining  three  traps  examined  were  partially 
stopped  up;  but  in  the  case  of  these  the  vent  was  placed  below  the 
crown  of  the  trap  and  so  fashioned  that  the  lower  line  followed  the 
descent  of  the  waste  pipe.  I  also  found,  where  couplings  were  used 
at  the  foot  of  wrought  iron  vent  pipes,  that  the  dislodged  particles  of 
rust  form  an  accumulation  sufficient  in  most  cases  to  stop  the  open- 
ing in  the  bend.  Wrought  iron  pipes  without  a  lining  of  some  non- 
corrosive  substance  should  not  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  back  vent- 
ing. The  traps  used  in  a  majority  of  the  cases  examined  were  the 
usual  form  of  "  S  "  and  "  P  "  traps,  with  the  regulation  seal  usually 
found  in  such  traps.  The  result  from  stoppages,  as  indicated,  will 
at  once  be  apparent  to  any  one  who  has  given  the  matter  the  slight- 
est attention.  In  this  latitude,  where  for  weeks  at  a  time  the  ends  of 
soil  and  vent  pipes — usually  extending  two  feet  above  the  roof — are 
completely  sealed  with  accumulations  of  hoar  frost,  rendering  them 
totally  useless  for  the  purpose  of  vents  or  for  the  escape  of  gases 
generated  in  the  sewers,  the  matter  assumes  a  very  serious  phase, 
requiring  intelligent  and  immediate  action. 

With  the  vent  pipes  over  the  crowns  of  traps  inoperative,  and  in 
addition  the  ends  of  soil  pipes  frozen  solid,  the  inquiry  may  well  be 
made,  how  is  it  possible  to  avoid  contagious  diseases  becoming  epi- 
demic ?  .  The  plumbing  ordinance  as  at  present  in  force 
leaves  the  plumber  no  choice  as  to  how  the  work  should  be  con- 
structed, no  matter  what  his  knowledge  or  experience  may  be.  He 
is  arbitrarily  compelled  by  legislative  enactment,  specifying  penalties 
for  infractions,  to  continue  to  observe  the  requirements  of  an  obso- 
lete ordinance. 

Domestic  engineering,  with  all  its  attendant  problems,  is  a  pro- 
gressive science,  and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  discoveries  and 
improvements  made  in  the  advancement  of  so  important  a  part  of 
our  domestic  hygiene.  The  ordinance  should  be  remodeled  to  con- 
form to  modern  practice. 

The  late  eminent  sanitary  Engineer,  Col.  George 
E.  Waring,  Jr.,  speaks  thus  in  his  book  "  Sewerage 
and  Land  Drainage  "  : 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  431 

My  own  conclusion  on  the  subject  of  trap  ventilation  is  that  it  is 
almost  always  unnecessary;  that  the  means  prescribed  are  not  well 
suited  to  the  end  in  view;  that  there  is  more  liability  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  seal  by  evaporation  by  reason  of  the  venting  than  of  its 
destruction  by  siphonage  when  not  vented;  and  that  in  those  rare 
cases  where  siphonage  cannot  be  prevented  by  a  better  arrangement 
of  discharge  pipes  the  best  remedy  would  be  to  supply  the  defective 
traps  at  their  summits  with  McClelland's  mercury  seal  trap  vents,  a 
perfectly  safe  device  of  little  cost,  simple  and  easy  of  application,  and 
sure  to  supply  air  when  needed,  because  affording  less  resistance  to 
its  inflow  than  does  the  water  of  an  S-trap  of  ordinary  depth. 

The  class  of  traps  which  cannot  be  emptied  by  siphonage  includes 
all  that  are  of  great  depth  and  diameter,  in  addition  to  Putnam's  trap 
described  above.  These  large  and  deep  traps  are  used  chiefly  in 
connection  with  water  closets  and  they  constitute  an  important  ele- 
ment of  the  various  forms  of  siphon  closet. 

In  another  recent  volume,  on  "  How  to  Drain  a 
House,"  the  same  writer  and  expert  discusses  trap 
ventilation  in  the  following  words  : 

Devices  intended  to  meet  existing  difficulties  have  not  all  been 
confined  to  the  form  and  construction  of  the  trap  itself.  Much  the 
most  widely  recommended  and  successfully  enforced  effort  to  meet 
the  difficulty  has  been  to  supply  what  is  known  as  the  *'  back-venti- 
lation "  of  traps.  Having  known  of  the  early  failure  of  this  device 
before  it^vas  generally  recommended  to  the  public,  and  taken  up 
in  the  compulsory  regulations  of  Health  Boards,  I  have  never  been 
able  to  look  upon  it  with  favor.  There  is  no  doubt  that  under  many 
circumstances  it  does  good,  but  I  believe  that,  on  the  whole,  it  does 
more  harm. 

Not  only  as  confirming  my  own  view,  but  as  an  illustration  of  very 
thorough  and  careful  experimental  work,  attention  may  properly  be 
called  to  an  investigation  carried  on  for  the  City  Board  of  Health  of 
Boston,  by  J.  Pickering  Putnam,  Esq.,  an  architect  of  that  city. 
These  investigations  have  been  set  forth  quite  fully  in  illustrated 
communications  to  the  American  Architect,  which  papers  certainly 
mark  a  very  important  step  forward  in  sanitary  literature.  The  de- 
ductions to  be  drawn  from  these  investigations  are  these: 

Whether  compelled  by  local  law  to  ventilate  traps  or  not,  I  should 
not  depend  on  ventilation,  in  the  conviction  that  the  simple  S-tfap, 


432  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

as    ordinarily    constructed    and  as   ordinarily    ventilated,    is   totally 
unreliable. 

If  compelled  by  law  to  construct  the  prescribed  back-ventilation, 
I  should  be  tempted  after  its  completion,  to  make  the  system  inop- 
erative by  closing  the  main  ventilation  pipe  at  some  point  near  its 
upper  end. 

In  the  matter  of  trap  ventilation  and  simplification 
of  plumbing-  we  owe  much  to  the  investigations  and 
researches  of  Mr.  J.  Pickering-  Putnam,  a  Boston  ar- 
chitect, to  whose  extended  writings  on  the  subject 
the  reader  is  referred  for  further  information.  One 
of  the  outcomes  of  his  studies  and  experiments  was 
the  invention  of  an  anti-siphoning  trap,  the  well- 
known  Sanitas  trap. 

More  recently,  an  important  series  of  experiments 
on  trap-siphonage  were  made  in  Germany,  and  as  the 
conclusions  reached  have  a  bearing  on  the  question 
under  discussion,  I  give  in  the  following  a  detailed 
account  of  the  same,  as  reported  by  their  author,  Herr 
Unna,  in  a  German  sanitary  periodical.* 

The  plumbing  regulations  of  the  City  of  Cologne,  Germany,  until 
recently  required  "  back-air  pipes  "  at  the  traps  of  fixtures  for  the 
purpose  of  aerating  the  branch  wastes  and  preventing  the  loss  of 
water  seal  by  siphonage.  A  committee,  appointed  to  revise  the  rules, 
entertained  doubts  about  the  necessity  or  propriety  of  this  rule. 
Some  members  of  the  committee  referred  to  one  of  the  leading  prin- 
ciples of  house  drainage,  which  requires  the  work  to  be  carried  out 
with  as  much  simplicity  as  possible,  and  pointed  out  the  fact  that 
the  "  back-air  pipes  "  tend  to  complicate  the  system  and  render  it 
liable  to  leaks  at  the  numerous  additional  pipe  joints  required.  This 
fact  cannot  surprise  us  when  we  learn  that  the  rules  in  Cologne  per- 
mitted the  use  of  galvanized  sheet  metal  pipes  for  vent  pipes,  and 

*  My  translation  of  this  valuable  report  was  communicated  first  in  the  columns 
cf  the  American  Architect. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  433 

that  the  joints  sometimes  were  not  even  soldered.  The  committee 
argued  in  favor  of  simplifying  the  plumbing  as  this  would  materially 
reduce  its  cost.  Incidentally  we  are  informed  that  a  thorough  ex- 
amination of  a  number  of  vent  pipes  attached  to  traps  disclosed  the 
fact  that  the  vents  were  in  nearly  all  cases  entirely  closed  and  stopped 
up  by  grease,  coffee  grounds  or  spider  webs. 

While  some  claimed  that  the  use  of  back-air  pipes  should  be  re- 
tained, but  that  they  should  be  of  heavy  lead  or  iron,  others  argued 
in  favor  of  their  omission,  because  siphonage  of  traps  could  not 
occur  in  ordinary  cases. 

To  settle  this  important  question  authoritatively,  the  Municipal 
Building  Department  determined  to  have  a  series  ©f  experiments 
made.  These  were  carried  out  jointly  by  Herr  Maniewski,  architect 
of  the  department,  and  Herr  Unna,  a  sanitary  engineer  of  Cologne. 
The  experiments  also  gave  incidentally,  some  very  interesting  infor- 
mation on  the  flow  of  water  and  air  in  house  pipes. 

On  a  board  fence,  about  10  metres  (33  feet)  high,  and  8  metres 
(26  feet)  wide,  three  platforms  were  erected  representing  three  stories 
of  a  building,  each  being  3  metres  (9.9  feet)  distant  from  the  next 
(See  Fig.  96)  The  pipe  system  used  in  the  experiments  was  at- 
tached to  the  board  fence  with  pipe  bands.  It  consisted  of  a  hori- 
zontal main  sewer  five  inches  in  size,  and  of  two  vertical  pipe  lines, 
which  in  different  experiments  were  made  of  different  diameter,  viz.: 
two,  2-J-,  four  and  five  inches.  A  gate-valve  S  was  placed  immedia- 
tely above  the  junction  of  the  first  vertical  pipe  with  the  sewer.  The 
first  vertical  line,  a  waste  pipe  of  two  inches  diameter  (changed  to 
2 \  inches  in  some  experiments),  had  three  Y-branches  as  shown,  and 
was  extended  full  size  above  the  top  of  the  fence.  On  the  lowest 
floor  this  pipe  had  an  inclined  branch  waste  pipe,  with  three 
Y-branches  and  fixtures,  located  at  distances  of  i  metre  (3.3  feet) 
from  each  other.  The  main  sewer  was  continued,  as  shown,  to  the 
second  vertical  line,  which  was  likewise  extended  upward  in  full 
size,  and  was  made  2-J-,  four  and  five  inches  in  diameter  successively. 
The  unshaded  portions,  G,  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  repre- 
sent sections  of  full  bore  glass  pipes,  which  were  inserted  for  the 
purpose  of  making  observations  on  the  flow  of  water.  The  bowls 
and  traps  experimented  upon  were  likewise  manufactured  in  glass. 
All  possible  combinations  of  arrangement  and  dimensions  occurring 
in  actual  practice,  and  the  following  points  were  considered  in  the 
experiments: 

i.  The  inside  diameter  of  the  horizontal  sewer. 


434 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS. 


435 


2.  The  inside  diameter  of  the  vertical  pipe  lines. 

3.  The  size  of  the  waste  connections  of  the  bowls. 

4.  The  depth  of  water  seal  in  the  traps. 

5.  The  size  of  the  strainers  in  the  fixtures. 

6.  The  distance  of  the  fixtures  from  the  vertical  lines. 

7.  The  grade  or  rate  of  inclination  of  the  horizontal  branches. 

8.  The  influence  due  to  enlargement,  reduction  and  full  closure  of 
the  upper  ends  of  the  vertical  lines. 

9.  The  possible  modifications  in  the  results  due  to  the  omission  of 
the  main  trap. 

10.  The  action  and  resistance  of  traps  under  fixtures  connected 

with  a  vertical  pipe  line,  through  which 
large  quantities  of  water  flowed  quickly  and 
suddenly,  corresponding  to  the  carrying 
away  of  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  through  a  roof 
conductor  pipe,  or  the  discharge  of  a  bath- 
tub filled  with  water. 

1 1    The  resistance  of  water  closet  traps 
connected  with  a  vertical  soil  pipe 

The  observation  of  the  flow  of  water  and 
air  by  means  of  the  sections  of  glass  pipes 
inserted,  established  the  fact  that  a  solid 
water  column  or  water  piston  was  formed 
only  in  the  case  of  inclined  branch  wastes 
when  the  top  of  the  vertical  lines  was  fully 
closed.  In  previous  experiments,  made  by 
Herr  Unna  with  glass  models  of  small  bore, 
the  water  poured  through  the  bowls  invar- 
iably formed  into  a  piston  and  emptied  the 
traps  by  siphonage.*  With  a  soil  pipe  open 
at  the  top,  water  poured  into  a  fixture, 
dashed  against  the  opposite  side  of  the 
at  once  broke  up  into  single  threads  which 
assumed  a  spiral  motion  along  the  walls  of  the  soil  pipe  (see 
Fig.  97).  As  the  amount  of  water  poured  into  the  fixture  was  in- 
creased the  number  of  threads  of  water  increased  from  the 
circumference  toward  the  centre  of  the  pipe  until  finally  the 
entire  pipe  was  filled  with  threads  of  water.  This  breaking  up 
of  a  solid  body  of  water  into  a  number  of  single  films  serves  also  to 


Fig.   97.— Spiral   motion  of  water 
in  vertical  soil  pipes. 

vertical   pipe,   and 


*  This  shows  conclusively  the  fallacy  of  making  trap  tests  by  means   of   small   glass   models. 

W.  P.  G. 


436  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

explain  the  large  volumes   of  air  drawn  in   by  the  water,  for  each 
thread  carries  some  air  along  with  it.     In  order  to  gain  some  knowl- 
edge as  to  the  amount  of  air  sucked  in,  an   anemometer  was  placed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  vertical  pipe,  the  instrument  being  made  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  pipe  and  fitting  tightly  into  the  same.     It  was 
found  that  the   discharge  of  one  bucket   of  water  sucked  in  from 
60-90  liters  (2,1-3.2  cubic  feet)  of  air,  according  to   the  time  con- 
sumed in  pouring  out  the  pail.     With  four  pails  discharged  in  rapid 
succession,  nearly  500  liters  (iyf  cubic  feet)  of  air  were  sucked  in. 
When  water  was  poured  in  at  the  top  of  the  vertical  soil  pipe,  it 
separated  into  vertical  parallel  threads.     The  air  measurements  gave 
results  which  were  about  50  per  cent,  smaller  than  in  the  case  of  the 
branch  waste  pipe,  showing,  as  might  be  expected,  that  there  is  a 
stronger  suction  in  the  case  of  smaller  vertical  waste  lines  and  of 
lateral  branches.     When  an  increaser  was  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
vertical  line,  the  results  did  not  differ  from  those  of  a 
pipe  line  having  a  full  size  extension.     When  a  fitting 
was  inserted,  which  reduced  the  area  of  the  pipe  mouth 
50   per  cent,  the   threads  of  the   falling  water  became 
Fig.  98.-Con-    more  concentrated,   and  the    water    in  the  adjoining 
watersuflfoweing    traps  became  violently  agitated  and  was  often   sucked 
zontaTpipeh°ri~    out-     when   the  top  of  the  vertical  line  was    closed 
entirely  by   a   plug,  the  water  did  not    break    up    into 
threads.     In  the  larger  vertical  pipes  the  water  flowed  down  along 
the   sides   of  the   pipe  when  it  was  poured  out  slowly  through  the 
fixture.     When  poured  quickly,  the  water  formed  a  solid  piston  and 
caused  the  siphonage  of  the  traps. 

The  water  flowing  through  the  main  horizontal  sewer,  instead  of 
having  a  level  surface,  formed  a  concave  surface  (see  Fig.  98).  This 
may  be  explained  by  the  friction  of  water  along  the  sides  of  the  pipes 
which  causes  here  a  slower  velocity  than  in  the  centre.  In  the 
smaller  horizontal  waste  pipe  (two-inches  diameter)  the  flow  of  water 
showed  the  same  results,  except  that  when  large  volumes  of  water 
were  poured  out,  a  piston  of  water  formed  which  created  a  strong 
suction.  By  extending  the  waste  pipe  at  its  upper  end  vertically  and 
keeping  the  pipe  end  open,  the  same  results  were  obtained  as  in  the 
case  of  the  vertical  main  line. 

The  use  of  a  main  intercepting  trap  will  necessarily  modify  the 
manner  in  which  the  flow  of  water  and  air  in  a  pipe  system  takes 
place,  and  hence  the  experiments  were  made  both  without  and  with 
a  trap  in  the  main  house  sewer. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  437 

If  the  clean-out  in  the  drain  trap  was  omitted,  and  large  volumes 
of  water  were  poured  through  the  soil  pipe,  the  water  in  the  trap 
welled  up  considerably  and  a  strong  outward  current  of  air  was  per- 
ceptible, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  first  vertical  waste  line 
was  open  to  the  roof  and  thereby  acted  as  a  relief  pipe.  With  a 
closed  clean-out  on  the  trap,  the  air  current  became  sufficiently 
strong  to  force  by  back  pressure  traps  with  4omm.  (if  inches)  depth 
of  seal.  These  experiments  tend  to  show  that  the  omission  of  the 
main  trap  favors  a  more  regular  flow  of  water  through  the  pipe 
system.* 

Another  important  question  to  determine  was  how  the  self-cleans- 
ing properties  of  traps  would  be  effected  by  an  increased  depth  of 
m seal,  which  renders  traps  less  liable  to  siphon- 

age,  for  it  is  obviously  undesirable  to  use  in 
practice  traps  which  while  resisting  siphon- 
age,  are  not  self-cleansing. 

To  determine  the  maximum  depth  of  seal 
at   which   traps  would  still  be  self-cleansing, 

Liil  "^^k          experiments  were  made  with   glass   traps  of 
HJ^K — ^_  Q^     different  diameters  and  of  different  depths 
of  seal.     These    traps    were    entirely    filled 
Fit%99us7dF?nrnsome  of° The ^    with  mud  and  sand,  and  the  bowl  filled  with 
periments.  water  until  a  head  of  40   centimeter  (sixteen 

inches)  had  been  reached.  The  effective  area  of  the  strainer  was 
taken  a.s  equal  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the 
trap.  The  sand  was  flushed  out  by  the  water  forcing  its  way  first  at 
the  upper  point  of  the  lower  trap  bend  (at  a  in  Fig.  99).  The 
results  of  these  experiments  are  summarized  as  follows:  Traps  of 
if  and  two  inches  diameter  are  self-cleansing  when  they  have  a 
water-seal  not  exceeding  i2omm.  or  nearly  4}-  inches;  and  traps  of 
2\  inches  diameter  are  self-cleansing  with  a  seal  up  to  five  inches  in 
depth.  But  Herr  Unna  very  properly  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  experimental  traps  were  made  of  glass,  and  therefore  were 
smoother  than  lead,  iron  or  brass  traps;  he  accordingly  assumes  a  seal 
of  four  inches  as  the  maximum  depth  of  seal  which  a  trap  may 
have  to  remain  self-cleansing. 

Further  experiments  were  made  in  order  to  determine  how  long  a 
time  it  takes  to  lose  the  water  seal  in  traps  by  evaporation.  Four 
glass  traps,  of  if  and  two-inches  diameter,  with  two  and  four-inch  seal 


*  The  new  plumbing  regulations  of   the    City    of    Cologne  accordingly    prohibit   the   use   of  a 
trap  on  the  main  drain.  W.  P.  G. 


438 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


respectively  were  used  in  the  experiments.  The  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  Curing  the  experiments  was  20°  C.  (68°  Fahrenheit). 
All  experiments  agreed  in  showing  that  lomm.  (f  inches  of  water 
evaporated  per  week.  A  trap  having  a  four-inch  seal  would  accord- 
ingly be  rendered  useless  by  evaporation  in  ten  weeks.  The  evapo- 
ration was  much  retarded  when  a  flannel  cloth  dipped  in  oil  was 
placed  over  the  strainer  in  the  fixture;  it  then  amounted  to  only 
6mm*  (^-inch)  per  week.  In  other  words, 
a  trap  with  a  four-inch  seal  would  take 
under  such  conditions  sixteen  weeks  to 
evaporate.  About  the  same  result  was 
obtained  by  slowly  pouring  a  wine  glass 
of  oil  into  the  trap.  Herr  Unna  con- 
cluded from  these  results  that  the  usual 
length  of  summer  vacation,  during  which 
houses  may  remain  closed,  will  not  en- 
danger the  seal  of  traps,  but  in  houses 
which  may  be  left  vacant  for  a  longer 
period  of  time,  he  advises  removing  the 
water  from  the  traps  and  substituting 
glycerine  for  same. 

In  the  experiments  on  siphonage,  the 
vertical  waste  line  consisted  first  of  a  two- 
inch  pipe,  and  subsequently  of  a  2|--inch 
pipe.  The  diameter  of  the  traps  and 
branch  connections  was  made  successively 
ij,  two  and  2\  inches.  The  if-inch 
traps  experimented  on  had  trap  seals  of  40, 
60,  80  and  loomm.;  the  two  and  2^  inch 
traps  had  seals  of  60,  80,  100  and  i2omm. 
At  the  highest  point  of  its  outer  bend, 
each  trap  had  an  opening,  into  which  was 
inserted  a  lomm.  glass  tube,  30  centi- 
meter high  (twelve  inches)  and  bent  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  S. 
(See  Fig.  100.)  A  paper  scale  was  attached  to  the  glass  tube,  and 
the  tube  was  filled  with  water  to  the  zero  point  on  the  scale. 

Different  sizes  of  strainers  were  used  in  the  fixtures.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  fixtures  from  the  vertical  pipe  did  not  exceed  i  meter 
(3.3  feet.)  The  influence  which  a  reduction,  an  enlargement  or  the 
entire  closing  up  of  the  upper  opening  of  the  pipe  line  had,  was 
studied  by  means  of  reducer  and  increasei  fittings  and  tight -fitting 
plugs. 


Fig.  100  — Glass  gauge  attached  to 
crown  of  traps  used  in  the  ex- 
periments. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  439 

The  water  was  poured  through  each  one  of  the  fixtures  on  the 
three  floors  successively,  and  the  action  on  the  trap  seals  of  the 
others  was  watched.  Experiments  were  also  made  with  the  two 
upper  or  the  two  lower  fixtures,  and  also  with  all  three  fixtures  at  one 
time.  The  volume  of  water  discharged  was  one  pail  of  water  con- 
taining 15  liters  or  3!  gallons,  and  afterwards  two,  three  or  more 
pails. 

All  these  experiments  agreed  in  showing  that  there  was  no  appre- 
ciable difference  when  the  top  of  the  vertical  pipe  line  was  enlarged, 
and  that  a  reduction  always  had  an  unfavorable  effect.  These  tests 
practically  confirm  the  rule  requiring  pipes  to  be  extended  at  least 
in  full  size,  and  showed  that  an  enlargement  is  desirable  to  counter- 
act in  winter  time  any  possible  reduction  of  the  sectional  area  of  the 
pipe  mouth  by  hoar  frost  or  icicles. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  are  summarized  as  follows: 

The  "  back-airing  "  of  traps  may  be  dispensed  with  provided  the  fol- 
lowing conditions  are  observed  : 

1.  The  cross-sectional  area  of  the  waste  or  soil  pipe  must  be  larger 
than    that    of   the   trap.       For    a    i^-inch  (4omm.)    trap    the  waste 
pipe  should  be  two  inches  (51  mm.),  for  a  two-inch  trap  it  should  be 
about  2^  inches  (6omm.) 

2.  The  traps  must  be  set  close  under  the  fixtures  and  must  either 
connect  directly  with  the  Y-branch  of  the  vertical  waste  or  soil  pipe, 
or  if  they  are  not  more  than  i  metre  (3.3  feet)  distant  from  the  ver- 
tical ventilated  pipe  the  horizontal  branch  waste  must  be  increased 
in  size. 

3.  The  traps    must    have   a   depth   of    water-seal   of   four    inches 
(loomm.) 

4.  The  combined  area  of  the  openings  in  the   strainer  of  the  fix- 
ture must  not  be  larger  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  cross-sectional  area 
of  the  trap. 

5.  Vertical  soil  or  waste  pipes  must  be  carried  in  full  size,  with  as 
few  offsets  as  possible,  to  a  point  above  the  roof;  it  is  even  better 
to   enlarge  the  pipes  two  inches,  from  a  point  twenty  inches  (50  c.  m.) 
below  the   roof;  the   minimum  size   of  roof  vent   pipes  to  be  four 
inches  (loomm.);  no  ventilating  cap  or  return  bend  to  be  put  on  the 
top  of  the  pipe;  a  wire  basket  may  be  used,  the   openings   of   which 
must  be  at  least  equal  to  the  sectional  area  of  the  pipe.     (Fig.  101.) 
***-*#*.*#^ 

In  other  experiments  made  a  horizontal  or  graded  waste  pipe  of 
51  mm.  diameter  (two  inches),  connected  with  the  vertical  line;  it 


44° 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


had  three  fixtures  connected  by  it  by  means  of  Y  branches.  '(See 
Fig.  96.)  The  fixture  traps  were  made  interchangeable  and  had  40, 
60,  80  and  loomm.  water-seal.  The  distances  of  the  three  fixtures 
from  the  vertical  lines  were  2,  3  and  4  meters  (6.659.9  and  13.2  feet.) 
The  three  fixtures  were  either  discharged  simultaneously  or  used 
singly,  while  the  other  two  were  closed.  These  experiments  were 
made  to  determine  the  influence  upon  siphonage  which  the  various 
distances  from  the  vertical  line  had.  The  influence  which  various 
inclinations  of  the  lateral  branch  had  was  ascertained  by  placing 
the  waste  pipe  under  inclinations  of  i  in  40,  i  in  20,  i  in  10,  i  in  5, 
i  in  2  and  i  in  i.  The  summary  of  the  results  of  these  experiments 
is  as  follows: 

i.   Where  the  distance  of  a  fixture  from  the  nearest  vertical   ven- 
tilated line  exceeds  i  meter  (3.3  feet)  the  trap  must  be  vented,  unless 
the  horizontal  waste  pipe  is  made   lomm.  or  about 
^-inch  larger,  and  unless  the  trap   fulfills  require- 
ments three  and  four  above  given. 

2.  A  single  fixture  connected  with  the  main  hori- 
zontal   sewer  through  a  special  vertical  waste  line, 
does  not  require  a  vent,  but  it  should  have  a  gate 
valve  in  the  waste  line  or  in   the  trap  in  order  to 
shut  off  the  fixture  during  prolonged  disuse   and  to 
guard  against  evaporation. 

3.  When  two   or  more  fixtures  discharge  into  a 
horizontal  or  inclined  lateral  waste,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  "  back  air  "  the  traps  of  each,  provided  the 
above  conditions  three  and  four  are  fulfilled,  when 
the   main  lateral  waste  pipe  is   a  size  larger  than 
the  fixture  waste,  but  it  is  necessary  to  extend  the 


Fig.  i oi.  — Wire 
basket  for  vent 
pipe  on  roof. 


uppermost  end  of  the  lateral  waste  upward  through  the  roof.  Such 
lateral  wastes  may  be  regarded  as  sub- mains,  which  of  course  always 
require  ventilation.  When  the  conditions  named  cannot  all  be  ful- 
filled, the  back-venting  of  traps  may  be  desirable  to  prevent  siphon- 
age. 

Similar  experiments  were  made  with  the  second  line  (2^  and  four 
inches  in  diameter  respectively),  fixture  traps  being  connected  to  the 
same  and  the  action  of  the  traps  observed  while  larger  volumes  of 
water  were  poured  through  the  vertical  pipe  line.  It  was  assumed 
that  the  vertical  line  represented  a  leader  pipe,  and  that  100  square 
meters  (or  about  1,000  square  feet)  of  roof  surface  could  be  drained 
by  a  24-inch  leader,  and  200  square  meters  (about  2,000  square  feet) 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  441 

by  a  four-inch  leader.  A  rainfall  of  lomm.  (f  inches)  per  hour 
yields  0.28  liters  (o.oi  cubic  feet)  per  second  per  1,000  square  feet, 
and  double  this  quantity  on  2,000  square  feet.  The  water  poured 
through  the  2^-inch  pipe  corresponded  to  £,  i  and  2  liters  per  second, 
or  1 8,  36  and  72mm.  rainfall  per  1,000  square  feet,  and  to  i,  2  and 
4  liters  per  second  through  the  four-inch  pipe,  or  the  same  amount 
of  rainfall  per  2,000  square  feet. 

In  the  experiment  with  a  24-inch  vertical  line  a  flow  of  water  cor- 
responding to  J  liter  per  second  did  not  affect  the  trap  seal;  a  flow 
of  i  liter  per  second  siphoned  the  trap  completely.  The  same  hap- 
pened of  course  with  a  flow  at  the  rate  of  2  liters  per  second. 

The  same  volumes  poured  through  the  vertical  four-inch  pipe  re- 
duced the  seal  of  the  trap  when  the  flow  was  at  the  rate  of  i  liter 
per  second,  and  siphoned  it  out  completely  when  the  rate  was  2  liters 
per  second. 

It  follows  from  this  that  it  is  not  permissible  to  connect  fixtures 
with  rainwater  pipes.  When  any  are  so  connected,  the  traps  must 
have  a  seal  of  at  least  four  inches,  and  even  then  it  is  better  to  vent 
the  trap  to  prevent  siphonage. 

The  second  vertical  line  was  then  made,  first  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  subsequently  five  inches,  and  used  to  connect  water  closet 
traps.  Each  branch  was  made  four  inches,  and  the  distance  from 
the  centre  of  the  water  closet  was  made  3.3  feet  (i  meter).  The 
water  closet  traps  had  one  and  two  inches  of  water-seal.  The 
amount  of  flushing  water  poured  through  them  was  15  liters,  or 
nearly  four  gallons.  The  results  were  as  follows: 

1.  Water  closet  traps  with  a  trap  seal  of  25mm.  (one-inch)   always 
require  vent  pipes,   even   where  the  soil   pipe  is  made  five   inches 
(i3omm.)  in  diameter. 

2.  Water  closet  traps  with   a  two-inch  water-seal   require  venting 
when  the  size  of  soil  pipe  is  equal  to  that   of  the  trap.     They  must 
also  be  vented  if  they  are  more  than   i   meter   (3.3  feet)    away  from 
the  soil  pipe,  whether  the  latter  is  larger  than  the  trap  diameter  or 
not. 

Back-air  pipes  for  water  closet  traps  can  therefore  be  omitted  only 
when  the  water-seal  is  two  inches  or  more,  when  the  closet  is  within 
3.3  feet  of  the  ventilated  soil  pipe,  and  when  the  latter  is  at  least  five 
inches  in  diameter.  With  a  soil  pipe  four  inches  in  diameter  a  back- 
air  pipe  is  necessary.  It  should  be  stated  in  this  connection  that  no 
experiments  were  made  with  siphon  and  siphon-jet  water  closets  hav- 
ing a  seal  of  three  or  four  inches,  and  the  reason  given  for  this  omis- 


442  SANITARY     ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

sion  is  that  the  closets  usually  fitted  in  Cologne  have  the  old-fash- 
ioned whirl  flush,  which  does  not  keep  traps  clean  when  they  have 
an  extra  deep  seal.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  further  experiments 
were  not  made  with  siphon-jet  closets,  as  the  latter  would  without 
doubt  have  modified  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  experimenters. 

The  experiments  showed  also  that  the  reduction  of  the  size  of  a 
five-inch  soil  pipe  to  four  inches  at  the  roof  acts  unfavorably,  and 
that  a  single  water  closet  with  two-inch  trap  seal  may  be  connected 
directly  with  a  five-inch  branch  to  the  main  sewer,  without  running 
a  four  or  five-inch  soil  vent  pipe  up  to  the  roof,  provided  it  is  not  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  house  sewer,  and  also  provided  there  is  some 
vertical  pipe  line  connected  with  the  same  sewer,  which  runs  in  full 
size  to  the  roof. 

Herr  Unna  concludes  from  the  entire  series  of  experiments  that 
back-air  pipes  are  necessary  only  in  exceptional  cases  and  under  the 
following  conditions,  viz.: 

(a.)  Where  fixture  traps  have  less  than  four  inches  of  water-seal, 
and  traps  of  water  closets  less  than  two  inches. 

(<£.)  Where  vertical  waste  or  soil  lines  are  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  diameter  of  the  traps  connected  with  them. 

(c.)  Where  fixtures  are  connected  with  inside  rainwater  leader 
pipes,*  not  larger  than  four  inches  in  diameter. 

(d.)  Where  fixtures  are  located  more  than  3.3  feet  (i  meter)  from 
the  vertical  soil  or  waste  line. 

(<?.)  Where  several  fixtures  are  connected  by  an  inclined  lateral 
waste  with  the  vertical  line.  In  this  case  it  is  only  necessary  to  ex- 
tend the  lateral  waste  at  its  upper  end  the  full  size  through  the  roof. 

When  using  vertical  back-air  lines  they  should  not  be  less  than 
two  inches  in  diameter;  only  heavy  lead  or  galvanized  pipe  should 
be  used  for  the  branches;  the  main  lines  should  be  of  cast  iron  or 
galvanized  wrought  iron;  the  joints  in  iron  vent  pipes  should  be  lead 
caulked  or  else  screw-joints,  and  lead  vent  pipes  should  have  soldered 
joints.  Vent  pipes  must  join  the  vertical  line  at  a  height  above  the 
overflow  point  of  the  fixture,  and  be  either  extended  separately 
through  the  roof,  or  connected  with  the  soil  or  waste  line  above  the 

highest  fixture. 
********* 

The  results  of  experiments  made  incidentally  by   Herr   Unna  to 

*  Many  old  dwelling  houses  in  New  York  City  still  have  the  soil  pipe  used  as  leader  pipe,  and 
in  such  cases  the  danger  of  siphonage  is  admittedly  greater,  particularly  when  back-air  pipes 
are  omitted.  W.  P.  G. 


COMPLICATION 


Plate  VI. — Sections  of  complicated  and  simplified  plumbing  work. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS.  443 

determine  the  required  size  of  waste  pipes  for  various  rates  of  flow 
of  water  from  supply  pipes  and  faucets,  are  worthy  of  notice.  The 
pressure  of  water-  was  about  50  pounds,  and  the  following  results 
were  obtained: 

1.  A  one-inch  compression  cock  supplies  more  water  than   a  two- 
inch  waste  pipe,  unobstructed  by  a  strainer,  is  able  to  remove. 

2.  A  J-inch  compression  cock  furnishes  water  at  the  rate    of   26.4 
gallons  (U.  S.)  in  70  seconds,  or   2T6^-4  X6o  =  22.6  gallons  per  minute, 
to  remove  which  quantity  a  full  two-inch  waste  pipe  withouj  strainer 
is  required. 

3.  A  J-inch  compression  cock  furnishes   15.6  gallons   per   minute, 
which  stream  is  taken  care  of  by  a  two-inch  waste  pipe  covered  by  a 
strainer  with  50  per  cent,  effective  area. 

4.  A  |-inch  compression  cock  furnishes  5.28  gallons   per  minute, 
and  a  i^-inch  waste  pipe  (more  correctly  4omm.)  with   40  per  cent, 
effective  area  of  the  strainer  will  remove  the  water  without  danger  of 
the  fixture  overflowing. 

For  the  water  pressure  existing  in  Cologne,  the  use  of  ^-inch 
faucets  for  fixtures  with  two-inch  waste  pipes,  and  of  |-inch  faucets 
for  fixtures  with  i-J-inch  waste  were  recommended. 


In  order  to  emphasize  still  further  the  contrast 
between  the  present  cumbersome  plumbing-  methods 
and  the  proposed  simplified  system,  I  have  drawn  in 
Plate  VI.,  two  diagrams,  A  and  B,  lettered  by  way 
of  comparison  "  Simplicity  "  and  "  Complication." 
My  drawing  is,  in  the  main,  similar  to  one  published 
by  Mr.  Putnam  some  years  ago.  It  shows  in  both 
diagrams  the  same  number  of  plumbing  fixtures, 
namely,  a  water  closet,  a  bathtub  and  a  washbowl, 
arranged  closely  about  a  main  soil  pipe  line.  In 
the  complicated  system,  we  have  four  vertical  pipe 
lines,  viz.:  the  soil  pipe,  a  back  air  line,  a  local 
vent  pipe  with  steam  riser  inside  of  same  to 
create  an  upward  current,  and  finally  a  safe  waste 


444 


SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 


SIMPLIFIED    PLUMBING    METHODS. 


445 


446  SANITARY    ENGINEERING    OF    BUILDINGS. 

line.  Each  of  the  vertical  lines,  as  seen  in  the  illus- 
tration, has  branches  to  each  and  every  fixture,  and 
the  result  is  a  perfectly  bewildering  network  of  pipes. 
Is  it  surprising  that  plumbing  work,  thus  arranged, 
becomes  very  expensive,  and  that  even  the  best 
mechanics  are  liable  to  make  an  error  in  the  pipe  con- 
nections? 

Contrast  with  this  complicated  system  the  arrange- 
ment shown  in  A.  Here  we  find  the  same  number  of 
fixtures  properly  arranged  and  connected  to  a  single 
vertical  soil  pipe  line,  which  is  extended  the  full  size 
up  to  the  roof.  Each  branch  from  the  fixture  is  made 
as  short  and  direct  as  practicable,  and  thus  arranged, 
does  not  require  the  branch  venting  with  its  array  of 
complicated  piping.  Can  any  one  hesitate  for  a 
moment  as  to  which  is  the  more  preferable  system  ? 

In  Figs,  102  and  103,  finally,  I  present  for  further 
explanation  two  diagrams  of  a  system  of  house  drain- 
age. Fig.  1 02  illustrates  the  plumbing  of  a  house  in 
which  the  fixtures  are  trapped  by  ordinary  S-traps, 
which  have  "  back-air "  pipes  attached  to  them, 
while  Fig.  103  shows  the  same  house  with  the  same 
fixture  system  arranged  on  the  "  one  pipe  "  or  simpli- 
fied system.  I  am  confident  that  a  closer  study  of 
these  diagrams,  and  of  the  principles  laid  down  earlier 
in  this  chapter,  will  convince  every  thoughtful  mind 
as  to  the  great  advantages  of  the  method  advocated 
by  me.  I  venture  to  express  the  hope  that  it  will  not 
be  very  long  before  the  simplified  method  will  have 
more  friends  and  advocates  than  the  old  method. 


INDEX. 


Absorption  drain  tiles 176 

Absorption  of  soil  pipe  gases  by  the 

water  in  traps 63,  71 

Accessibility  of  plumbing  work.  . ..  207 
Advantages  of  lead  pipe  for  branch 

wastes 32 

Advantages  of  wrought  iron  soil 

and  waste  pipes 231 

Advocates  of  trap-vent  pipes 409 

Air  pipes,  sizes  of 76 

Air  pressure  tests 83,  247,  375 

Air  pressure  tests,  description  of .  .  .  395 

Air  shafts,  for  bathrooms 22 

American  Architect^  opinions  of 

the,  on  plumbing  simplified 421 

Annual  report  of  plumbing  inspector 

of    St.    Paul,    on    ventilation    of 

traps 429 

Annual  re-inspection  of  plumbing 

work 398 

Anti-siphon  trap  attachments.  .248,  410 
Arrangement  of  back  air  pipes.  ...  65 
Arrangement  of  bath  and  toilet 

rooms  128 

Arrangement  of  internal  sewerage 

system 74 

Arrangement  of  plumbing  fixtures.  120 
Arrangement  of  water  closet  doors.  296 
Arrangement  of  water  closet  in  bath 

apartments 255 

Arrangement  of  water  closets  and 

urinals 332 

Automatic  sewage  siphons 182 

Avoidance  of  wood  work 246 


B 


Back-air  pipes,  arrangement  of. ...  65 
Back-air  pipes,  conclusions  of  Herr 

Unna  regarding  necessity  of.  ...  442 

Back-air  pipes  for  S-traps 407 

Back-air  pipes,  objections  to 66 

Back-airing  of  traps 212 

Back-airing  of  traps,  conditions 

under  which,  may  be    dispensed 

with 439 

Back  pressure  in  traps 63 

Bath  and  toilet  rooms,  arrangement 

of 128 

Bath  houses,  public 323 

Bathing  of  insane  patients 313 


Bathroom  fixtures,  arrangement  of.   278 

Bathroom  for  servants 257 

Bathroom  in  extension 259 

Bathrooms 134 

Bathrooms,  essentials  of 255 

Bathrooms,  heating  of 269 

Bathrooms  in  rear  hall  rooms 258 

Bathrooms    in    the    centre    of    the 

house 22,   259 

Bathrooms,  lighting  of 274 

Bathrooms,  location  of 256 

Bathrooms,  unsanitary 18 

Bathrooms,  unsanitary  arrangement 

of 13 

Bathrooms,  ventilation  of 272 

Bathrooms,  walls  and  floors  of 275 

Bathtubs 112,  244,   282 

Bathtubs,  arrangement  of 126 

Bathtubs,  defective  arrangement  of.      19 

Bathtubs,  enameled  iron 244 

Bathtubs  of  wood,  copper  lined. .  .  .   244 
Bathtubs,  porcelain  or  earthenware.  244 

Bell  traps 53 

Bidet 244 

Bottle  traps 53,     55 

Bower  trap 55,     56 

Brass  screw  nipples 34 

Brass      ferrules      for      connection 
between  lead  and  iron  pipes.  .34,    199 

Brass  tubing 232 

Brick  drains 38,  144,   232 

Brick    trenches   for   drains,    objec- 
tions to 235 

Brookline,  Mass.,  report  of  commit- 
tee of  the  town  of 425 

Building  Department  specifications 

for  plumbing 228 

Butler's  pantry  sinks 18 

Bye-passes 67,   248 


Cabinet  work  for  concealing  plumb 

ing  work 238 

Cast  iron  drain  pipes 84 

Cast  iron  pipes,  manufacture  of. ...  86 

Cast  iron  pipes,  coating  of 88 

Cast  iron  pipes,  extra  heavy 230 

Cast  iron  pipes,  weight  of 88 

Cast  iron  soil  pipes 23 

Caulking  of  cast  iron  pipe  joints.  . .  91 

Cellar  drains 37 

Cellar  floor  drains 37 


448 


INDEX. 


Cellar  floors 36,  73 

Cellars 35 

Cement  pipes  for  drains 38,  158 

Cesspools 147 

Cesspool  trap 37,  49 

Chain  and  plug  arrangement  for 

bowls  and  tubs 20 

Chain  and  plug  basins 243 

Church  buildings,  plumbing  for...  .  305 
Cities  and  towns  exempting  certain 

traps  from  back-venting 429 

Cleaning  hand  holes 79 

Cleaning  hand  holes  for  drains.  .  .  .  236 
Club  houses,  bathing  arrangements 

in 292 

Club  houses,  plumbing  work  for. .  .  292 

Cold  air  box 36 

Cologne,  City  of,  new  plumbing 

regulations 432,  437 

Col.  George  E.  Waring,  quotations 

from,  in    ' '  Sewerage   and    Land 

Drainage,"  and  "How  to  Drain 

a  House" 430 

Combined  wash  and  bathtubs 287 

Complicated  plumbing,  objections 

to 402 

Concave  surface  of  water  flowing 

through  a  horizontal  pipe 436 

Concealed  plumbing  work 238 

Conditions  under  which  back-airing 

of  traps  may  be  dispensed  with.  .  439 

Congregate  bathrooms 315 

Connection  between  lead  and  iron 

pipes 34,  99 

Connection  between  house  and  street 

sewers 162 

Connection  between  house  drains 

and  sewers 146 

Control  of  plumbing  work  by  Boards 

of  Health 22 

Cudell  trap 57 

Cup  joints 33 


I) 


Damp  cellars 36,  72 

Dampness  in  foundation  walls 73 

Defective  arrangement  of  bathtubs.  19 
Defective   arrangement   of   kitchen 

sinks 17 

Defective  arrangement  of  safe  waste 

pipes 21 

Defective  arrangement  of  soil  and 

waste  pipes 22 

Defective  arrangement  of  urinals. .  .  21 
Defective    arrangement    of     wash- 
bowls    19 

Defective  extra  heavy  soil  pipe.  ...  26 

Defective  joints  in  lead  pipes 33 

Defective  joints  of  soil  pipes 24 


Defective  location  of  fresh  air  inlet.     29 
Defective    location   of   top   of   soil 

pipes  near  chimney  flues 29 

Defective  wiped  joints 33 

Defects  in  plumbing 39 

Defects  in  sewage  disposal  systems.    253 

Defects  of  house  drains 38,    141 

Defects  of  pan  closets 15 

Defects  of  plunger  closets 19 

Defects  of  valve  closets 19 

Description  of  plumbing  fixtures. .  .    105 
Description  of  water  pressure  test. .    376 
Detached  towers  or  wings  for  plumb- 
ing in  hospitals 310 

Details  of  building  construction. ...        9 

Details  of  water  closets 280 

Devices   for   preserving   the    water 

seal  of  traps 70 

Diagram  of  system  of  house  drain- 
age with  non-siphoning  traps ....   445 
Diagram  of  system  of  house  drain- 
age with  traps  back-aired 444 

Diameters  of  waste  pipes    for    fix- 
tures      99 

Discharge  of  sewage  into  the  sea. .  .    164 
Discharge    of    sewage    into    water 

courses 163 

Disconnecting  trap 50 

Disconnection    between  cellar   and 

sewer 37 

Disconnection  of  house  drain.. .  .45,     46 

Disposal  of  sewage 146,  161,   251 

Double  trapping  of  house  drains.  50,   215 

Drainage  of  soil 72 

Drainage  plans 40,   226 

Drain  pipes  of  cast  iron 84 

Drain  testers 389 

Drains  bedded  in  concrete 236 

Drains,  brick 232 

Drains,  manner  of  laying 232,   235 

Drawn  lead  traps 54,   232 

Dry  closets 307 

Dry-earth  system 191 

D-trap  for  water  closet 51 

D-traps 53 

Durham  system  of  house  drainage . .     94 


Earth  closets 191 

Earthen  drains 38,  229 

Engineering  Magazine,  opinions 

of,  on  plumbing  simplified 422 

English  house  drainage  system 81 

English  plumbing  practice 236 

Enlargement  of  smaller  waste  and 

vent  pipes  at  roof 30 

Epidemic  diseases  due  to  sewer  air.  n 

Essentials  of  a  bathroom 255 

Evaporation  of  water  in  traps 63 


INDEX. 


449 


Experiments  on  trap  siphonage.  67,  404 
Experiments  on  trap  siphonage  by 

Herr  Unna 432 

Experiments  on  trap  siphonage  by 

Messrs.  Putnam  and  Rice 426 

Exposed  and  accessible  plumbing 

work 284 

Exposure  of  plumbing  work 239 

External  sewerage  of  buildings.  ...  141 
Extra  heavy  soil  pipe 23 


Factories,  plumbing  in 300 

Factory  and  work  shop  sanitation.  .  326 

Family  bathroom 257 

Faulty  arrangement  of  back  air 

pipes 65,  66 

Ferrules,  brass 34 

Field's  annular  flush  tank  siphon. .  .  184 

Filth  diseases 339 

Final  test  of  gas  piping 383 

Final  test  of  plumbing  work 101 

Final  test  of  water  supply  system.  .  383 

Fittings  for  cast  iron  pipe 93 

Fixtures,  material  of 201 

Fixtures,  open  arrangement  of 239 

Fixtures,  placing  of,  in  vertical 

groups 240 

Fixtures,  sizes  of  waste  pipes  for. .  .  99 

Fixtures,  trapping  of 43,  100,  21 1 

Flap  valve  traps 49 

Flexible  connection  for  flush  pipes.  242 
Floor  joint  of  porcelain  water 

closets 242 

Floor  space  occupied  by  plumbing 

fixtures 279 

Floors  of  bathrooms 276 

Flow  of  water  from  faucets,  size  of 

waste  pipe  for 443 

Flow  of  water  through  a  horizontal 

pipe 436 

Flow  of  water  through  a  vertical 

soil  pipe 435 

Foot  tubs 244 

Foundation  \valls,  dampness  in.  ...  73 
Flushing  arrangements  for  water 

closets 281 

Flushing  of  plumbing  work 216 

Flushing  of  traps 48 

Flush  tank,  construction  of 180 

Flush  tank  for  sewage  disposal. .  .  .  254 
Frederick  Tudor,  opinion  on  trap 

ventilation 429 

Fresh  air  inlet  pipe 28,  81 

Fresh  air  inlet,  defective  location  of.  29 

Fresh  air,  necessity  of 10 

Freezing,  protection  against 222 

Fundamental  requirements  of  house 

drainage 195 


Gas  fixture  system,  test  of 383 

Gas  pipes,  material  for 200 

Gas  piping,  final  test  of 383 

Gas  piping  system,  test  of 378 

Gas  piping  test,  description  of 378 

Glass  models  for  trap  tests 435 

Glass  partitions 297 

Glazed  roll  rim  bathtubs 244 

Grease  traps 107,   246 

Ground  air 36 


II 


Heating  of  bathrooms 269 

Hints  on  the  Drainage  and  Sewer- 
age of  Dwellings,  quotations  from.  403 

Hip  bath 244 

Hopper  closets     17,   117 

I  lopper  closets,  flushing  rim 241 

Hot  air  furnaces  in  cellars 36 

House      Drainage      and      Sanitary 

Plumbing,  quotations  from 405 

House  drain  traps,  location  of 50 

House  drain  traps   of   earthenware 

or  iron 49 

House  drains,  double  trapping  of .  .   213 
House   drains  and  plumbing  work, 

testing  of 375 

House  drains  of  brick 38 

House  drains  of  earthenware  pipes.     38 

House  drains  of  wood 38 

House  drains,  laying  of 155 

House  drains,  materials  for 197 

House  drains,  shape  and  material  of.   144 
House  drainage  system,  sub-division 

of 196 

House    drainage,    fundamental    re- 
quirements of 195 

House  sewage 10 

Housemaids'   sinks 113,   245 

Hospitals  for  insane,  plumbing  work 

in 3J3 

Hospitals,  plumbing  in 308 

Hotels,  plumbing  work  in 287 

Hydric  trap 61 

Hydrostatic  pressure  tests 375 


I 


Ideal  trap 62 

Illustrations  of  simplified  plumbing 

methods 410 

Inclination  of  drain 80 

Inspection  of  plumbing  systems.  ...  40 

Intercepting  chamber 182 

Internal  sewerage  system,  arrange- 
ment of 74 

Iron  drain  and  soil  pipes 229 


450 


INDEX. 


J 


Joints  between  lead  pipe  and   cast 

iron  pipe 34 

Joints  in  cast  iron  pipes 89 

Joints  in  iron  soil  pipes 24 

Joints  in  wrought  iron  pipes 95 

Joints  of  gas  and  water  mains 27 

Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  opinion  of,  on  plumb- 
ing simplified 423 

Junction    between    soil,     waste    or 

leader  and  horizontal  drain  pipes .  78 

Junctions  of  drains So 


K 


Kitchen  sinks 17,  105,   245 

Kitchen  sinks,  arrangement  of 123 


Latrines 300 

Laundry  tubs 18,  107 

Laundry  tubs,  arrangement  of 124 

Laundry  tubs,  wooden 241 

Lavatories 109,  283 

Laying  cast  iron  pipes 89 

Laying  of  pipe  sewers 159 

Leaching  cesspools 150 

Leader  pipes 77 

Lead  for  caulking  joints 199 

Lead  pipe  for  waste  and  vent  pipes .  199 

Lead  pipes,  defective  joints  in 33 

Lead  soil  pipes 22,  229 

Lead  waste  pipes 31 

Leaky  joints 202 

Lighting  of  bathrooms 274 

Location  of  bathrooms 256 

Location  of  houes  drain  traps 50 

Location  of  main  cellar  drain 79 

Local  ventilation   of   plumbing  fix- 
tures   132 

Loss  of  water  seal  in  trap 63 

London  Building  News,  opinion  of, 

on  plumbing  simplified 424 


M 


Machines  for  smoke  test.  .102,  103,  104 

Main  cellar  drain,  location  of 79 

Main  drains  under  cellar  floor 38 

Making  bathrooms  sound  proof.  ...  274 

Materials,  plumbing 229 

Materials,  soundness  of 197 

Management  of  plumbing  fixtures.  .  136 
Maniewski,    Herr,    experiments   on 

trap  siphonage 433 

Manufacture  of  cast  iron  pipes 86 


Manufacture  of  vitrified  pipes 156 

Masons'  trap 49 

McClelland  anti-siphon  vent  attach- 
ment        58 

Mechanical  traps 53,  54,  55,   212 

Mercury  seal  traps 54 

Motion,  spiral,  of  water  in  vertical 

soil  pipes 435 

Multiplication  of   soil  pipe  stacks, 
objections  to 237 


N 


Nickel-plated  piping,   exposed,    ob- 
jections to 240 

Noiselessness  of  plumbing  work. ...  221 
Non-siphoning  traps.. 58,  212,  248,  410 
Number  of  water  closets  for  schools.  306 


O 


Objections  to  back-air  pipes 66 

Objections    to    supply    and    waste 

pipes  in  concealed  places 32 

Objections  to  trapless  fixtures 46 

Objections  to  trap-vent  law 408 

Odor  tests 397 

Offsets,  proper  arrangement  of 30 

Office  buildings,  plumbing  work  in.  293 

Omission  of  the  drain  trap 44,  45 

One  pipe  system 248,  446 

Open  arrangement  of  fixtures 239 

Open  soil  pipe  mouth 29 

Open  stand  pipe  overflow  basins. .  .  244 

Overflow  pipes 20,  100 

Overflow   pipes,  defective   arrange- 
ment of 19 


Pan  closets 15,  241 

Pantry  sinks 108 

Pedestal  short  hopper  closet 242 

Peppermint  test 101,  247 

Peppermint  test,  description  of 386 

Pipe  sewers,  laying  of 159 

Pipe   system  used   in    trap   experi- 
ments  433.  434 

Pipes,   protection   of   pipes  against 

corrosion 198 

Pipes,    sizes   of,    for   drainage  pur- 
poses   232 

Plans  for  drainage 226 

Plumbing  appliances,  selection  of.  .  241 
Plumbing    arrangements,     English, 
not  adapted   to   American   condi- 
tions    236 

Plumbing    and   drainage    specifica- 
tions   228 

Plumbing  defects 39 


INDEX. 


451 


Plumbing      defects     in      tenement 

houses from  340  to  360 

defects  in  the  pipe  system .  .   340 

defects  of  trapping 347 

defects  of  the  fix'ture  system.  353 
Plumbing  fixtures,  arrangement  of.  120 
Plumbing  fixtures,  arranged  in  an 

annex 133 

Plumbing  fixtures,  description  of. .  .  105 
Plumbing  fixtures,  management  of .  .  136 

Plumbing  fixtures,  selection  of 105 

Plumbing    for     military     barracks, 

armories 318 

Plumbing  for  synagogues 305 

Plumbing  for  theatres.  .  .  . , 302 

Plumbing  for  warehouses 300 

Plumbing  inspector  of  St.  Paul,  re- 
port of,  on  ventilation  of  traps. .  .   429 
Plumbing  in  houses  closed  during 

the  summer 138 

Plumbing  in  houses  closed  during 

the  winter 140 

Plumbing  in  hospitals 308 

Plumbing  laws 22,   227 

Plumbing  methods  simplified,  illus- 
trations of 410 

Plumbing  regulations  of  the  City  of 

Cologne 432,  437 

Plumbing  regulations,  of  New  York 

City 248,   249 

Plumbing  sections 226 

Plumbing,  simplification  of 407 

Plumbing  work,  accessibility  of.  ...  207 
Plumbing  work,  control  of,  by 

Boards  of  Health 22 

Plumbing  work  done  by  contract. .  .  250 
Plumbing  work  done  by  contract. .  .  203 
Plumbing  work  done  by  days  work. 

205,   250 

Plumbing  work,  final  test  of 101 

Plumbing  work,  flushing  of 216 

Plumbing   work    for   factories   and 

workshops 332 

Plumbing  work  for  office  buildings.   293 

Plumbing  work  for  stores 298 

Plumbing  work  in  hotel  buildings.  .  287 
Plumbing  work  in  hospitals  for  insane  313 
Plumbing  work,  noiselessness  of.  .  .  221 
Plumbing  work  restricted  to  bath- 
room, kitchen,  pantry  and  laundry.  240 
Plumbing  work,  supervision  of,  by 

experts 400 

Plumbing  work,  testing  of 247 

Plunger  closets 19,  241 

Pollution  of  wells  by  cesspools 147 

Porcelain  water  closets,  floor  joint  of.   242 

Pot  or  round  traps 53,      55 

Prevention  of  siphonage  of  traps  by 

vent  pipes 64 

Prevention  of  water  waste. .  .  .222 


Prisons,  water  closets  for 317 

Privies 151 

Proper  arrangement  of  offsets 30 

Protection  against  freezing 222 

Protection  of  pipes  against  corrosion.  198 
Protection  of  wrought  iron  pipes 

against  rust 98,  231 

Public  bath  houses 323 

Puro  trap 60 

Putnam,  J.  P.,  investigations  and 

researches  of 432 

Putnam,  experiments  of,  on  trap 

siphonage 426 

Putty  joints 34 


Quotation  from  American  Architect 
on  plumbing  simplified 421 

Quotation  from  annual  report  of 
plumbing  inspector  of  St.  Paul. . .  429 

Quotation  from  report  of  committee 
of  the  town  of  Brookline 425 

Quotations  from  Col.  George  E. 
Waring's  books,  ' '  Sewerage  and 
Land  Drainage"  and  "How  to 
Drain  a  House  " 430 

Quotation  from  Engineering  Maga- 
zine on  plumbing  simplified 422 

Quotation  from  "  Hints  on  the 
Drainage  and  Sewerage  of  Dwell- 
ings"  403 

Quotation  from  "  House  Drainage 
and  Sanitary  Plumbing  " 405 

Quotation  from  London  Building 
News  on  plumbing  simplified.  . .  .  424 


R 


Railroad  stations  and  ferry  houses, 

plumbing  in 320 

Rain  bath 245 

Rain  bath,  public 323 

Rainwater  pipes,  sizes  of 234 

Recent    Practice    in    the    Sanitary 
Drainage  of  Buildings,  quotation 

from ". 405,  406 

Recessed  drainage  fittings 96 

Refrigerator  waste  pipes 100 

Refrigerators 109 

Regulations,  plumbing,  of  the  City 

of  Cologne 432 

Removal  of  dust 331 

Removal  of  sub-soil  water 72 

Repeal  of  trap  vent  law 420 

Report  of  special  committee  of  the 

town  of  Brookline,  Mass 425 

Requirements  of   hygiene   for   fac- 
tories and  workshops 327 


452 


INDEX. 


Requirements  of  New  York  plumb- 
ing rules  as  to  testing. 381 

Requirements  of  traps 47 

Return  bends  on  soil  pipes 28 

Rhoads— Williams  siphon 1 86 

Rice,  experiments  of,  on  trap  siphon- 
age 426 

Roof  water  pipes 77 

Rule  for  determining  sizes  of  rain- 
water pipes 234 

Rules   and    regulations,    plumbing, 

for  smaller  cities 402 

Rules    for   plumbing  in     tenement 

houses 361 

Rules  to  be   observed   in   planning 

simplified  plumbing  systems 419 

Rust,  choking  of  vent  pipes  by 30 

Rusting  of  wrought  iron  pipes 97 

Rust  joints 92 

Rust-preventing  processes 98 


Safe  drip  pipes 21,  100,    135 

Safety  appliances  in  factories 330 

Sagging  of  lead  waste  pipes 33 

Sand  holes  in  soil  pipe 23 

Sanitary     drainage      of      tenement 

houses 335 

Sanitary  condition  of  cellars 55 

Sanitary  requirements  of  tenement 

buildings 338 

Sanitas  trap 59 

Sanitation   in    factories   and   work- 
shops     326 

School  baths 307 

School  water  closets 305 

Screw-jointed  wrought  iron  pipe  for 

drainage  purposes 230 

Screw  joints 95 

Screw  joints,  advantages  of 231 

Secret  waste  valve  basins 244 

Separation  of  rain  water  and  sewer 

pipes 77 

Separation  of  water  closet  and  bath- 
room   131,  241,   264 

Servants'  bathroom 257 

Servants'  water  closets 14 

Set  fixtures  in  modern  houses 10 

Se\vage  disposal 161,   251 

Sewage  disposal  from  factories 333 

Sewage  disposal  systems,  defects  in.   253 

Sewage  flush  tanks 254 

Sewage  irrigation 252 

Sewage  removal 154 

Sewage  screens 182 

Sewage  tanks 164 

Sewerage  system,  object  of 10 

Sewer  air,  influence  of 1 1 

Sewer  connections 251 


Sewer  gases 339 

Simplicity  of  arrangement  of  plumb- 
ing work 204 

Simplicity  versus  Complication.  (See 

Plate  VI.),  after  page 442 

Simplification  of  plumbing 407 

Simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of 

bathrooms 417 

Simplified  plumbing  for  bathroom, 

pantry  and  toilet  room 411 

Simplified  plumbing  for  a  group  of 

lavatories 412 

Simplified  plumbing  for  group  of 

hotel  toilet  rooms 414 

Simplified  plumbing  system,  rules 

for 419 

Simplified  plumbing  methods 402 

Simplified  plumbing  methods  illus- 
trated    410 

Sink  traps 54 

Siphonage  of  traps .  63,  248 

Siphonage  of  traps,  experiments 

upon,  by  Dr.  Lissauer 404 

Siphonage  of  traps,  experiments 

upon,  by  S.  S.  Hellyer : .  404 

Siphonage  of  traps,  experiments 

upon,  by  Col.  George  E.  Waring, 

Jr 404 

Siphonage  of  traps,  experiments 

upon,    by    Edward   S.     Philbrick 

and  Ernest  W.  Bowditch 404 

Siphonage  of  traps,  experiments 

upon,  by  Dr.  Renk 404 

Siphon  closets 118,  242 

Siphon  jet  closets nS,  242 

Sitz  bath 244 

Size  of  drains  for  small  houses 233 

Size  of  waste  pipe  for  various  rates 

of  flow  of  water  from  faucets.  .  .  .  443 

Sizes  of  air  pipes 76 

Sizes  of  drains  for  large  houses.  .  .  .  233 
Sizes  of  drains  for  institutions,  office 

buildings,  etc 233 

Sizes  of  drains  for  mansions 233 

Sizes  of  house  drains 155 

Sizes  of  pipes  for  drainage  purposes .  232 

Sizes  of  rainwater  pipes 234 

Sizes  of  soil  pipes 30,  75 

Sizes  of  soil  and  waste  pipes 233 

Sizes  of  soil  pipes  for.  high  office 

buildings 31 

Sizes  of  soil  pipes  for  hospitals  for 

insane 31 

Sizes  of  soil  pipes  for  tenement 

houses 31 

Sizes  of  traps 234 

Sizes  of  waste  pipes.. « 30,  31,  75 

Sizes  of  waste  pipes  for  plumbing 

fixtures 99 

Slop  sinks 14,  114,  245 


INDEX. 


453 


Slop  sinks,  arrangement  of 124 

Smoke  rockets 102 

Smoke  testing  machines.  .102,  103,   104 

Smoke  tests 102,  247 

Smoke  tests,  description  of 388 

Soil,  waste,  drain  and  vent  pipes, 

materials  of 198 

Soil  for  house  foundations 10 

Soil  and  waste  pipes,  defective  ar- 
rangement of 22 

Soil  and  waste  pipes  made  unneces- 
sarily large 30 

Soil  and  waste  pipes,  sizes  of 233 

Soil  and  waste  pipes,  ventilation  of.  214 
Soil   pipe  tops  near  bedroom  win- 
dows      29 

Soil  pipes,  cast  iron 23 

Soil  pipes  in  recesses 27 

Sojl  pipes,  lead 22,   226 

Soil  pipes  not  extended   up   to  the 

roof 27 

Soil  pipes,  sizes  of 75 

Soldering  nipples,  brass 34 

Sound,  transmission  of 274 

Soundness  of  materials 197 

Specifications,  plumbing  and  drain- 
age    228 

Spiral  motion  of  water  in   vertical 

soil  pipes 435 

Spray  baths 245 

Spray  baths  for  factories 301 

Spray  baths  for  insane 313 

Spray  baths  for  military  barracks. .  .   320 

Spray  baths  for  prisons 318 

Spray  baths  for  schools 307 

Stables     and      riding     academies, 

plumbing  in 320 

Standard  plumber's  soil  pipe.  .  .  .23,  229 

Standpipe  overflow  basins in 

Stationary  washstands 20,   109 

Store  toilet  rooms 298 

Straining  chamber 182 

S-traps,  with  back-air  pipes 407 

Sub-divisions  of  a  house  drainage 

system 196 

Sub-soil  water,  removal  of 72 

Sub-surface  irrigation. 168,   252 

Sub-surface  irrigation  field,  arrange- 
ment of 172 

Suggestions  for  the  sanitary  drain- 
age of  tenement  houses.  .  .  .361  to  373 
Supply  pipes  of  lead,  strength  of .  . .   200 

Surface  irrigation 167,   252 

Systems   of    house    drainage,    dia- 
grams for 446 


Tarred  or  asphalted  soil  pipe 24 


Tenement  house  inspection 360 

Tenement   houses,    sanitary    drain- 
age of 335 

Tenement  house  spray  baths 287 

Tenement  houses,  water  closet  ac- 
commodations for 286 

Tested  soil  pipe 230 

Testing  house  drains  and  plumbing 

work 374 

Testing  plugs 376 

Testing  of   drain,  soil,    waste  and 

vent  pipes 26 

Testing  of  vitrified  pipe  drains.  .  .  .    160 

Testing  plumbing  work 247 

Test    of    branch     waste    and  vent 

pipes 376 

Test  of  gas  piping  system 378 

Test  of  plumbing  work  after  com- 
pletion     380 

Tests  during  construction 375 

Tests  of  materials 375 

Tests  of  plumbing  applied  in  sani- 
tary inspections 385 

Tests  of  supply  pipe  system 378 

Theatres,  plumbing  in 302 

The  Drainage  of  a  House,  quotation 

from 406 

Tidal  valve  traps 51 

Tight  cesspools 150 

Tightness  of  joints,  how  to  ascertain.     82 

Tip-up  basins 20,  in,   243 

Toilet    and     bathrooms     for     club 

houses 292 

Trapping  drains  and  waste  pipes. .  .     42 

Trapping  of  cellar  floor  drains 37 

Trapping  of  fixtures 43,  100,  211 

Trapless  water  closets 52 

Trap  attachments 58 

Trap,  definition  of 42 

Trap  on  the  main  drain 43,     44 

Trap  seal,  loss  of 62,     63 

Trap  siphonage,  experiments  on.. .  .      67 
Trap  siphonage,  experiments  on,  by 

Messrs.  Putnam  and  Rice 426 

Trap  siphonage,  experiments  on,  by 

Herr  Unna 432 

Trap  tests,  glass  models  for 435 

Trap  ventilation,  article  on,  in  the 

American  Architect 403 

Trap  venting  law  in  New  York  City.  402 

Trap  vent  law,  objections  to 408 

Trap  vent  law,  repeal  of 420 

Trap  vent  pipes,  advocates  of 409 

Trap  vent  system 248 

Traps,  back-airing  of 212 

Traps,  brass 232 

Traps  for  sinks,  bowls,  tubs 53 

Traps,  flushing  of 48 

Traps,  lead,  with  hand  made  seams.   232 
Traps,  material  of 200 


454 


INDEX. 


Traps,  mechanical.    53,  54,  55 

Traps,  non-siphoning  .  .  .    212,  248,  410 

Traps  of  drawn  lead 54,  232 

Traps,  siphonage  of 63,  248 

Traps,    sizes   of,  larger  than  waste 

pipes.... 35 

Traps,  requirements  of 47 

Trough  water  closets 241 


U 


Unhealthy  occupations 329 

Unna,  conclusions  of   Herr,  regard- 
ing necessity  of  back-air  pipes.  . .   442 
Unna,    Herr,    experiments    on  trap 

siphonage 432 

Unsanitary    arrangement   of    bath- 
rooms        13 

Untrapped  waste  pipe 19 

Urinals 114,   246 

Urinals,  defective  arrangement  of .  .      21 

Urinals  for  private  houses 282 

Urinals,  lipped,  objections  to 246 

Urinal  stalls,  dimensions  of 291 

Urinettes 294,   303 

Use  of  non  siphoning  traps 69 


Valve  closets 19,  241 

Valves  and  shut-off s,  material  of .  .  .  200 

Vaults,  sewer-connected 151 

Vent  attachments,  anti-siphon 410 

Vent  extensions  of  soil  pipe  made  of 

sheet  iron 28 

Vent   extensions   of   small    size   for 

soil  pipe 28 

Vent   pipes   for  the   prevention    of 

siphonage  in  traps 64 

Ventilating  caps  on  soil  pipes 28 

Ventilation  in   factories    and    work- 
shops   332 

Ventilation  of  bathrooms 272 

Ventilation  of  soil  and  waste  pipes . 

75,  214 

Vitrified  glazed  sewer  pipes 144 

Vitrified  pipes,  manufacture  of 156 

Vitrified  pipes,  thickness  of.  .  .  .157,  158 

Vitrified  pipes,  weight  of 158 


W 


Walls  of  bathrooms 275,   277 

Waring,  George   E.  Jr.,  opinion   on 

trap  ventilation 427,   428 

Waring's  sewer  gas  check  valve.  ...      57 

Washbasins,  arrangement  of 124 

Washbasins,  types  of 243 


Washbowls 109 

Washbowls,   defective   arrangement 
of 19 

Washdown  closets 118 

Wash-out  closets 118,  242 

Waste    pipes    and  vent  pipes,  en- 
largement of,  at  roof 30 

Waste  pipes  for  refrigerators 100 

Waste  pipes  for  washbowls 34,     35 

Waste  pipes  of  lead 31 

Waste  pipes,  sizes  of 75 

Waste  valves  for  washbowls no 

Waste  valves  for  bathtubs 113 

Water-carriage  system 152 

Water  closets 1*5,   241 

Water  closets,  arrangement  of 126 

Water  closet  arrangements  for  fac- 
tories    300 

Water  closet  and  bathtub  in  same 

apartment,  objections  to 240 

Water  closets  for  servants 14 

Water  closets  for  schools 305 

Water  closet  compartments,  dimen- 
sions of 288 

Water  closet  doors,  arrangement  of.   296 
WTater  closet    in   bath   apartments, 

arrangement  of 255 

Water  closet  partitions 288,   296 

Water  closet  ranges 300 

Water  closet  seats 281 

Water  closet  traps 51,     52 

Water,  concave  surface  of,  flowing 

through  a  horizontal  pipe 436 

Water  pressure  test 82,  247,   375 

Water  pressure  test,  description  of. .    376 
Water,  spiral  motion  of,  in  vertical 

soil  pipes 435 

Water  supply  and  sewerage  of  build- 
ings, planning  of 10 

Water  supply  system,  final  test  of.  .   383 

Water  waste,  prevention  of 222 

Weight  of  cast  iron  pipes 88 

Wells,  pollution  of  by  cesspools.. .  .    147 
William  Atkinson,  architect,  report 
of,   on  amendment    of   trap   vent 

law  in  Brookline,  Mass 425 

Wiped  joints 33,     99 

Wooden  house  drains 38,   144 

Workmanship  in  plumbing 202 

Wrought  iron  drainage  fittings,    re- . 

cessed 96 

Wrought  iron  pipes,  screw  jointed..   230 

Wrought  iron  pipe  system 94 

Wrought  iron  pipes,  weight  of 95 


Y 


Yard  closets 305 


WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR: 
Sanitary  Questions: 

A  chapter  on  the  water  supply,  drainage,  sewerage,  heating  and  other  sanitary  questions 
relating  to  country  houses.  Supplement  to  "  Cottages,  or  Hints  on  Economical  Build- 
ing." New  York,  1884.  Price,  $1. 

House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing. 

New  York:  Seventh  edition,  1898.    Price,  50  cents. 

Recent  Practice  in  the  Sanitary  Drainage  of  Build- 
ings, 

with  Memoranda  on  the  Cost  of  Plumbing  Work.  New  York:  Second  edition,  1890. 
Price,  oO  cents. 

The  Disposal  of  Household  Wastes. 

A  discussion  of  the  best  methods  of  treatment  of  the  sewage  of  farm  houses,  isolated  coun- 
try houses,  suburban  dwelling,  houses  in  villages  and  smaller  towns,  and  of  larger  insti- 
tutions, such  as  hosp'ta.s,  asylums,  hotels,  prisons,  colleges,  etc  ,  and  of  the  modes  of 
removal  and  disposal  of  garbage,  ashes  and  other  solid  house  refuse.  Illustrated.  1890. 
Price,  50<-euis. 

Gas  LigJiting  and  Gas  Fitting. 

Including  specifications  and  rules  for  gas  piping,  notes  on  the  advantages  of  gas  for  cook- 
ing and  heating,  and  useful  hints  for  gas  consumers.  Second  edition,  rewritten  and  en- 
larged. 1890.  Price,  5 O  cents. 

A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection, 

or  Hints  and  Helps  regarding  the  choice  of  a  Healthful  Home,  in  city  or  country.  New 
York:  Third  edition,  1895.  Price,  $1. 

The  Prevention  of  Fire. 

The  author's  suggestions  on  fire  prevention  and  fire  protection,  although  written  chiefly 
with  reference  to  hospitals,  lunatic  asylums  ard  orphans'  homes,  are  equally  applicable  to 
hotels,  warehouses,  factories,  mills,  schools,  churches,  dwelling  houses  and  public  build- 
ings of  all  kinds.  Second  edition,  1887.  Price,  6O  cents. 

Theatre  Fires  and  Panics ;  their  Caicses  and  Pre- 
vention. 

New  York,  1896.    Price,  $1.50. 

Anlagen  von  Haus-Entwaesserimgen,  nacJi  Studien 
amerikanisher  Verhaltnisse. 

Berlin,  1880.    Price,  80  cents. 

Die  Hauskanalisation.  Prinzipien  und  Praktische 
Winke  filr  eine  rationelle  Anlage  von  Haus-Ent- 
zuaesseritngen.  Eine  bau-hygienische  Skizze. 

Leipzig,  1885.     Price,  60  cents. 

Entwaesserungs- Anlagen  Amerikanischer  Gebdude. 

Heft  10  d(  r  "  Fortsr hritte  der  Architektur."    Stuttgart,  1897.    Price,  $6. 

Sanitary  Engineering. 

1898.    Price,  postpaid,  $1.25. 

Consult  also  articles  prepared  by  the  author  for  Macmillan  &  Co.'s  forthcoming  Diction- 
ary of  Architecture  (Editor,  Russell  Sturgis,  Esq  )  on  the  following  subjects:  Bath,  bathtub, 
bath  house,  swimming  bath,  rain  bath,  douche,  drain,  drainage,  house  drainage,  plumbing, 
water  supply,  cistern,  filter,  pipe,  pump,  gas  lighting,  gas  piping,  drying  room,  laundry, 
kitchen,  market,  abattoir,  sewer,  sewerage,  sewage,  sewer  gas,  cesspool,  sub-surface  irriga- 
tion, basin,  water  closet,  urinal,  washtub,  trap,  sanitary  engineering  and  others. 


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